Compressible Flow

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Goals
• Describe how compressible flow differs from
incompressible flow
• Define criteria for situations in which compressible flow
can be treated as incompressible
• Provide example of situation in which compressibility
cannot be neglected
• Write basic equations for compressible flow
• Describe a shape in which a compressible fluid can be
accelerated to velocities above speed of sound
(supersonic flow)

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Basic Equations
Five changeable quantities are important in
compressible flow:

1. Cross-sectional area, S
2. Velocity, u
3. Pressure, p
4. Density, r
5. Temperature, T

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Basic Equations
Restrict focus to those systems in which properties
are only changing in flow direction.

Generally, cross-sectional area S is specified as a

function of x. (S=S(x))

Need four equations to describe the other four

variables.

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Basic Equations
1. Mass Balance relates r, u, S

2. Mechanical Energy Balance relates r, u, S, p

3. Equation of State relates T, p, r

4. Total Energy Balance relates Q, T

What is different about compressible flow?

r, u, p all change with position.

Need to use differential form of equations.

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Mass Balance
m  r uS  constant
In differential form

d r uS   r udS  r Sdu  uSdr

Divide both sides by ruS

d  m  dS du d r
   0
m S u r

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Mechanical Energy Balance
    
2 p 2
u dp
Wˆ    gZ       h f
 2  p r 
1

Differentiate and assume Ŵ = 0

 u2  dp
 d    gdz   dh f  0
 2  r

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Viscous Dissipation
2
4f L u
hf 
D 2
For a short section of pipe: Assumes only
2 wall shear (no
4 f dL u fittings)
dh f 
D 2

 u2  dp f dL u 2
 d    gdz  4 0
 2  r D 2

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Equation of State
M PM
pV  zRT r 
V zRT
For simplicity it is assumed that z is either 1 (ideal) or a
constant
dp dV dT
Volume:   0
p V T
dp dr dT
Density:   0
p r T

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Total Energy Balance
For gases thermodynamics allows a better calculation of
the heat transfer Q and changes in internal energy. These
were terms that were previously included in the viscous
dissipation term.
The temperature of a flowing gas depends on:

• Rate of heat transfer Q from environment.

• Rate of viscous dissipation (significant in compressors).
Included in work term Ŵc
• Thermodynamic changes H.

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Total Energy Balance
 u2  Q ˆ
  gZ  H    Wc
 2  m
Q is the rate of heat addition along the entire length of the
channel and Ŵc is the total rate of energy input into the
system and includes efficiency to account for viscous
dissipation.
For Ŵc to be in the correct units use:

1 B T U  7 7 8 f t  lb f

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Compressible vs. Incompressible
When can simpler incompressible equations be used?

• Density change is not significant (<10%)

• Fans, airflow through packed beds

Mach number is a measure of the importance of density

changes for compressible fluids.
velocity fluid
N Ma 
velocitysound
Rule of Thumb: NMa < 0.3 assume incompressible

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Isentropic Flow

Adiabatic (Q = 0) and Reversible

Isentropic (ΔS = 0)

Venturi meter, Rocket propulsion

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Adiabatic Flow

Adiabatic (Q = 0), Frictional

Mathematically more difficult

Short Insulated Pipes

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Isothermal Flow

Isothermal, Frictional

Long Uninsulated Pipes

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Compressible Flow Through Pipes

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Goals

• Describe equations useful for analyzing isothermal,

compressible flow through a constant diameter pipe.

• Describe how Mach number and L are related for flow

in a constant diameter pipe.

• Use equations for isothermal flow to compute the flow

rate of compressible fluids in constant diameter pipes.

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Isothermal Flow
Constant Diameter Pipe

P1, r1 P2, r2

Goal is to analyze the friction section. Flow through

pipes is irreversible so viscous dissipation is important.

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Mass Balance
r uS 1  r uS 2
S is constant
r u 1  r u 2
G1  G2 Mass velocity constant

Differential Balance
1 dr 1 du
 0
r dx u dx

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Mechanical Energy Balance

 du   dz  1  dp   dh f  ˆ
 u   g          W
 dx   dx  r  dx   dx 
turbulent horizontal no compressor

 du  1  dp  4 f u
2
u      0
 dx  r  dx  D 2

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Total Energy Balance

 du dz dT  dQ ˆ
m  u g  Cp   Wc
 dx dx dx  dx
turbulent horizontal isothermal no work

du 1 dQ
u 
dx m dx
Note: This indicates that there must be heat transfer
because dT = 0. This is the heat required to keep T
constant.

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Equation of State

1 dp 1 dr 1 dT
  0
p dx r dx T dx
isothermal

1 dp 1 dr
 0
p dx r dx

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Isothermal Flow
Combining Mass, MEB and EOS

p2 dp r1 p2 2f L
  2  p dp   dx  0
p1 p p1G p1 D 0

Assume friction factor f is constant and integrate:

2
r1  p2 
4f
L

 p1  p2
2 2
2

 ln  
D p1G  p1 

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Constant f ?
G  r u  constant

T  constant   constant

Dr u
Re   constant f  constant


CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Isothermal Flow
2
r1  p2 
4f
L

 p1  p2
2 2
 2
 ln  
D p1G  p1 

P1, r1 P2, r2

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Isothermal Flow
M
p1  p2
2
 2

G 2  zRT 2
L  p2 
4 f  ln  
D  p1 
For a fixed P1 this expression has a maximum at:
r1 p1
G 2

 p1 r1 
max
4f L
1  ln  2 
D  G max 

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Maximum Flow

Gmax  r2 p2

p2 zRT  u
umax  
r2 S ,T Ernst Mach (1838-1916)
M

Thus for a constant cross-section pipe the maximum obtainable velocity is Mach
one for any receiver pressure. This is said to be choked flow.

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 “Choked” Flow

PCritical
P1 Vsonic
GMax

Unattainable Sonic Velocity

Flows
G
GMax  U Sonic r End of Pipe  0 Attainable Flows
P

 P Mwt 
G  Ur  U   G
 R T 

PCritical P1
CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014
 Example Problem (maximum flow)

An astronaut is receiving breathing

oxygen at 10 C from his space
capsule through a 7 meter long, 1.7
cm diameter, hose. The capsule
supply pressure is 200 kPa and the
suit pressure is 100 kPa. What is the
flow rate of the oxygen to the suit ? If
the hose breaks off at the suit, what
is the flow rate of oxygen ? What is
the pressure at the end of the hose ?
The hose is “smooth”.

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

Calculation Approach (subsonic flow)
Given P1, P2, and T

Assume
subsonic flow Calculate Calculate
Assume G NRE
at the end of f
the pipe.

Calculate
Iterate
G

Calculate
V at end
of pipe
If V > V sonic - flow is unattainable - got to next page
Calculate
V sonic at
end of
pipe

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Calculation Approach (sonic flow)
Given P1, P2, and T

Assume sonic
flow at the Assume Assume Calculate
end of the GMax FDTF f
pipe.

Calculate
Iterate
GMax

Calculate Check FDTF Calculate

P2 (sonic) assumption NRE

If P2 (sonic) > P2 - flow is sonic at end of pipe and G = GMax

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 10 Minute Problem
Nitrogen ( = 0.02 cP ) is fed from a high pressure cylinder through
¼ in. ID stainless steel tubing ( k = 0.00015 ft) to an experimental
unit. The line ruptures at a point 10 ft. from the cylinder. If the
pressure in the nitrogen in the cylinder is 3000 psig and the
temperature is constant at 70 F, what is the mass flow rate of the
gas through the line and the pressure in the tubing at the point of the
break ?
10 ft

P = 3014 psia

P = 1 atm

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Reversible Adiabatic Flow

p0 pr
T0 Tr

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Converging/Diverging Nozzle

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Isentropic Flow of Inviscid Fluid

Q  0 S  0

In this case The mass balance and MEB are the same as
that for the isothermal case.
Now though the total energy balance will give a relation
between the velocity and temperature

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Total Energy Balance
 du dZ dT  dQ
m  u g  Cp   0
 dx dx dx  dx
1 horizontal adiabatic

du dT
u Cp 0
dx dx

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Equation of State

1 dp 1 dr 1 dT
  0
p dx r dx T dx

Given the normal equation of state, the TEB, MEB, and the
thermodynamic relation Cp – Cv = zR/M, isentropic flow gives
the following useful values.

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Useful Relationships
Given the normal equation of state, the TEB, MEB, and the
thermodynamic relation Cp – Cv = zR/M, isentropic flow gives
the following useful values.

pV   p0V0
p p0
 Cp
r r 0  
Cv
  1
p T 
  
p0  T0 

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 From Mechanical Energy Balance
du 1 dp 1
u  0 or udu  dp  0
dx r dx r
1 1
1   p 
udu   dp    r0    dp
r   p0  

Integrating
 1
 
2 p0   p   
u  u0 
2 2
1    u↔p
r 0   1   p0  
 

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Isentropic Flow

2 zRT0    T 
u u  1    u↔T
2 2

M   1   T0 
0

 1
2 p    r  
u 2  u02  0
1     u↔r
r0   1   r0  
 

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Velocity, NMa, and Stagnation
For isentropic flow the definition of the speed of sound is:

 dp  p  RT
uS , S     
 dr  S r M

It is also convenient to express the relationships in terms of

a reference state where u0 = 0. This is called the stagnation
condition (u0 = 0) and P0 and T0 are the stagnation pressure
and temperature.

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Velocity – Mach Relationships
The previous relationships now become:

 1
 
2  p0  
N 2
    1
  1  p  
Ma

 
and

2  T0  
N 2
    1
  1  T  
Ma

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Cross-Sectional Area
for Sonic Flow
Application of the continuity (mass balance) equation gives:

 1
S 1 2    1N Ma 
 2 2  1
  
S *
N Ma   1 

S* is a useful quantity. It is the cross-sectional area that

would give sonic velocity (NMa = 1).

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Summary of Equations for Isentropic Flow
 1 
S 1  2    1N Ma
2
 2  1 p    1 2  1 
    1  N Ma 
S *
N Ma   1  p0  2 

T    1 2  r    1 2 
1 1
1 
 1  N Ma   1  N Ma 
T0  2  r0  2 

p0, T0, r0, are at the stagnant (reservoir) conditions.

These ratios are often tabulated versus NMa for air ( = 1.4).
One must use the equations for gases with  ≠ 1.4.

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Maximum Mass Flow Rate
Since the maximum velocity at the throat is NMa = 1, there is
a maximum flow rate:

 1
 2   1
m max  S * r0 p0  
   1

Increase flow by making throat larger, increasing stagnation

pressure, or decrease stagnation temperature. Receiver
conditions do not affect mass flow rate.

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Drug Injection via Converging / Diverging
Nozzle
Supersonic jet Helium cylinder

Contour Shock Tube

Powdered drug cassette

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Shock Behavior

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 Shock Behavior

Po Pt PR
Isentropic Paths

PR = P c

PR = P e

PR = P f

Non-Isentropic
Paths
Pe< PR < Pf

Sonic Flow at throat (maximum mass flowrate)

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 10 Minute Problem

Air flows from a large supply tank at 300 F and 20 atm (absolute) through
a converging-diverging nozzle. The cross-sectional area of the throat is 1
ft2 and the velocity at the throat is sonic. A normal shock occurs at a point
in the diverging section of the nozzle where the cross-sectional area is
1.18 ft2. The Mach number just after the shock is 0.70.

What would be the pressure (P1) at S = 1.18 ft2 if no shock occurred ?

What are the new conditions (T2 and P2 ) after the shock ?

What is the Mach number and pressure at a point in the diverging section of the
nozzle where the cross-sectional area is 1.8 ft2 ?

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014

 CFD Simulation of Nozzle Behavior

CBE 150A – Transport Spring Semester 2014