GEO-INFORMATICS (GS-250)

Lecture 3

Earth Shape Models,

Type of Surfaces,
Map Projections

Muhammad Tariq Khan

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 OVERVIEW

- Geodesy / Geodetic Datum

- Shape of the Earth

- Geometric Earth Models

- Coordinate Systems

- Map Projections

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 Geodesy
• Geodesy, is the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and
representation of the earth, its gravitational field, and other geodynamic
phenomena, such as crustal motion, oceanic tides, and polar motion.

• The science of determining the size and shape of the earth and the precise
location of points on its surface.

• More simply, geodesy is the study of the Earth’s size and shape.

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 Geodetic Datum
• A geodetic datum defines the size and shape of the earth, and the origin and
orientation of the axis used to define the location of points and coordinate
systems used to map the earth.

• Over time, geodetic data have evolved from simple flat surfaces and spheres
to complex ellipsoids.

• The diversity of datums in use today and the technological advancements that
have made possible global positioning measurements requires careful datum
selection and careful conversion between coordinates in different datums.
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 OVERVIEW

- Geodesy / Geodetic Datum

- Shape of the Earth

- Geometric Earth Models

- Coordinate Systems

- Map Projections

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 Shape of Earth
• The Shape of the earth is to a large extent the result of:

- Its rotation, which causes its equatorial bulge,

- The competition of geological processes such as the collision of plates and

volcanism,

- Resisted by the earth’s gravity field

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 Shape of Earth
We think of the earth … when it is actually an ellipsoid, slightly
as a sphere … larger in radius at the equator than at the poles

• Flat earth models can be accurate over short distances (i.e., less than 10 Km),
spherical earth models for approximate global distance calculations, and
ellipsoidal earth models for accurate global distance calculations.
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 OVERVIEW

- Geodesy / Geodetic Datum

- Shape of the Earth

- Geometric Earth Models

- Coordinate Systems

- Map Projections

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 Parameters for Mapping
• A mathematical model of the earth must be selected for the Earth as a -
Spheroid/Geoid/Ellipsoid

• The mathematical model must be related to real-world features – Datum

• Real-world features must be projected with minimum distortion from a round

earth to a flat map; and given a grid system of coordinates - Projection

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 Geometric Earth Models

• Flat earth models

• Spherical earth models

• Ellipsoidal earth models

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 Geometric Earth Models

Flat Earth Models:

• These are still used for plane surveying, over distances short enough

so that earth curvature is insignificant (less than 10 kms).

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 Geometric Earth Models
Spherical Earth Models:
• Represents the shape of the earth with a sphere of a specified radius.

• Often used for short range navigation and for global distance approximations.

• Fail to model the actual shape of the earth.

The slight flattening of the earth at the poles results in about a twenty one
kilometer difference at the poles between an average spherical radius and the
measured polar radius of the earth.

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 Geometric Earth Models

Ellipsoidal Earth Models:

• Are required for accurate range and bearing calculations over long
distances.

• Define an ellipsoid with an equatorial radius and polar radius.

• Represents the shape of the earth over the smoothed, averaged sea-
surface.

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 GEOID – Earth Without Topography
• To determine latitude and longitude, surveyors level their measurements down
to a surface called a geoid. The geoid is the shape that the earth would have if
all its topography were removed.

• Or more accurately, the shape

the earth would have if every
point on the earth's surface
had the value of mean sea
level.
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 GEOID – Earth Without Topography
• If the earth was of uniform density and its topography didn’t exist, the geoid
would have the shape of an ellipsoid centered on the earth’s center of mass.

• But – The Density is NOT Uniform:

- where mass is deficient the geoid will dip below the mean ellipsoid.
- where a mass is surplus the geoid will rise above the mean ellipsoid.
- the biggest presently known undulations are the minimum at the Indian
Ocean with N = -100 meters and the maximum in the northern part of the
Atlantic Ocean with N = +70 metes.
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Earth Surfaces

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 OVERVIEW

- Geodesy / Geodetic Datum

- Shape of the Earth

- Geometric Earth Models

- Coordinate Systems

- Map Projections

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 Coordinate System

• A coordinate system is used to locate a point on the surface of the

earth.

• There are many different coordinate systems, based on a variety of

geodetic datums, projections, and units in use.

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 Coordinate System

Geographic Coordinate System (GCS):

• Location measured from curved surface of the earth.

• Uses Spheroid or Ellipsoid based systems.

• Measurement units latitude and longitude:

- Degree-Minutes-Seconds (DMS),

- Decimal degrees (DD) or Radians (rad)

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 Coordinate System

Projected Coordinate System (PCS):

• Flat Surface.

• Units can be in meters, feet, inches.

• Distortions will occur, except for fine scaled maps.

• Includes world, continental, polar, US National

Grids, UTM, state planes.

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 Coordinate System
Latitude and Longitude:
• This is the most commonly used geospatial reference system. The assumption
is Earth is a sphere.

• The Prime Meridian and the Equator are the reference planes used to define
latitude and longitude.

• Geographic coordinates are the earth's latitude and longitude system, ranging
from 90 degrees south to 90 degrees north in latitude and 180 degrees west to
180 degrees east in longitude.
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 Coordinate System
Latitude and Longitude:
• A line with a constant latitude running east to west is called a parallel.

• A line with constant longitude running from the north pole to the south pole is
called a meridian. The zero-longitude meridian is called the prime meridian
and passes through Greenwich, England.

• A grid of parallels and meridians shown as lines on a map is called a

graticule.

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 Coordinate System
Latitude and Longitude:
• Global Cartesian Coordinates (x, y, z) for the whole earth.

• Geographic Coordinates (φ, λ, z) for the whole earth.

• Projected Coordinates (x, y, z) on a local area of the earth’s surface.

The z-coordinate in Global Cartesian and Projected Coordinates is defined

Geometrically; and in Geographic Coordinates gravitationally.

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 Coordinate System
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM):
• UTM is a global system developed by the US Military Services.

• Extends from 80° South of the Equator to 84° North of the Equator.

• The coverage area is 360° from West to East (counter clockwise).

• Units are meters.

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 Coordinate System

UTM GRID
OVERLAY

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 OVERVIEW

- Geodesy / Geodetic Datum

- Shape of the Earth

- Geometric Earth Models

- Coordinate Systems

- Map Projections

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 Map Projections
• A map projection is a system in which locations on the curved surface of the
earth are displayed on a flat sheet or surface according to some set of rules.

• Mathematically map projections are transformations of geographic co-

ordinates (latitude, longitude) into the Cartesian (x, y) co-ordinate space of
the map.

• The Manner in which a 3D surface of the earth is presented on a flat 2-D

Surface

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 Map Projections
• The earth is first reduced to a globe and then projected onto a flat surface.

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 Why Use a Map Projection ?
• One can only see half the earth’s surface at a time.

• Unless a globe is very large it will lack detail and accuracy.

• Doesn’t fold, roll, or transport easily.

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Map Projections

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Map Projections

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 Distortion Projected Maps
• In the process of transforming a curved surface into a flat surface, some
geometric properties are modified.

• The geometric properties that are modified are: Area (important for mass
balances), Shape, Direction, Length

• The difference between map projections has to do with which geometric

properties are modified.

• Depending on the type of analysis, preserving one geometric property might

be more important that preserving other.
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 Distortion Projected Maps

• Conformal Projections: Preserves local shapes.

• Equal Area Projections: Preserves the area displayed.

• Equidistant Projections: Preserves the distances between certain

points.

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 Types of Projections
• Conic: Screen is a conic surface. Lamp at the center of the earth. Examples:
Albers Equal Area, Lambert Conformal Conic. Good for East-West land
areas.

• Cylindrical: Screen is a cylindrical surface. Lamp at the center of the earth.

Examples: (Transverse Mercator). Good for North-South land areas.

• Azimuthal (planar): Screen is a flat surface tangent to the earth. Lamp at the
center of the earth (gnomonic), at the other side of the earth (stereographic),
or far from the earth (orthographic). Examples: Lambert Azimuthal Equal
Area. Good for global views.

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 Projection Classification
Conical:
• Globe sits under a cone,
touching along pre-selected line
of latitude.

• Projection developed by cutting

cone length wise a unrolling.

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 Projection Classification
Cylindrical:
• Projected onto a cylinder which is also cut lengthwise and unrolled.

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 Projection Classification
Planar / Azimuthal:
• Portion of earth’s surface is transformed from a perspective point to a flat
surface.
• Most often used to map polar regions.

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