Data Structure & Algorithms

Chapter 2:
Preliminaries
Imran Ali Memon
IT Department
 Contents
2.1 Algorithm
2.2 Algorithmic Notations
Steps Control Exit, Comments, Variable Names,
Assignment Statement, Input & Output, Procedures
2.3 Control Structures
2.4 Complexity of Algorithms
2.5 Subalgorithm
 2.1 Algorithm
• An algorithm is a well-defined list of steps for
solving a particular problem.
 2.1 Algorithm
• The format for the formal presentation of an
algorithm consist of two parts:
• The first part is a paragraph which tells the purpose
of an algorithm, identifies the variables which
occur in the algorithm and list the input data.
• The second part of the algorithm consists of the list
of steps that is to be executed.
 2.2 Algorithmic Notations
Steps, Control, Exit:
• The steps of the algorithm are executed one after the other,
beginning with step 1.
• Control may be transferred to Step n of the algorithm by the
statement “Goto step n”.
• Goto statements may be practically eliminated by using certain
control structures.
• If several statements appear in the same step,
Set K := 1, LOC := 1 and MAX := DATA[1]
then they are executed from left to right.
• The algorithm is completed when the statement Exit(Stop in
flowchart) is encountered.
 2.2 Algorithmic Notations
Comments:
• Each step may contain a comment in brackets.
• Which indicates main purpose of step.
• Comment usually appear at the beginning or the end of
the step.
 2.2 Algorithmic Notations
Variable Names:
• Variables names will use capital letters, as MAX and
DATA.
• Single-letter names of variables used as counters or
subscripts will also be capitalized in the algorithm.
 2.2 Algorithmic Notations
Assignment Statement:
• Assignment statements will use the dots-
equal notation :=
• E.g: MAX := DATA[1]
• Assigns the value in DATA[1] to MAX.
• Some books use the backward arrow or
equal = sign for this operation.
 2.2 Algorithmic Notations
Input & Output :
• Data may be input and assigned to variables
by means of a Read statement with the
following form:
Read : MAX
• Data in variable output by means of a Write or
Print statement with the following form:
Write : “Hello”/MAX
 2.2 Algorithmic Notations
Procedures :
• The term “Procedure” will be used for an
independent algorithmic module which solves a
particular problem (like function in programming).
• Sometimes called Module.
 2.3 Control Structures
There are three types of logic or flow of control:

(1) Sequence Logic, or Sequential flow

(2) Selection logic, or Conditional flow
(3) Iteration logic, or Repetitive flow
 2.3 Control Structures

Control Structure

Sequence Logic/ Selection logic/ Iteration logic/

Sequential flow Conditional flow Repetitive flow

Single Iteration Repeat for loop

Double Iteration Repeat while

loop
Multiple
Iteration

Imran Ali Memon (IT Department) 12

 2.3 Control Structures
(1) Sequence Logic (Sequential flow):
• The modulus are executed in
obvious sequence.
• Sequence presented by means
of numbered steps or by the
order in which the modulus are
written.
 2.3 Control Structures
(2) Selection Logic (Conditional flow):
• Selection logic employs a number of conditions which
lead to a selection of one out of several alternative
modules.
• Such structure called conditional structures or If
structures.
• These structures are fall into three types.
– Single alternative
– Double alternative
– Multiple alternative
 2.3 Control Structures
Single Alternative:
• This structure has the form

• The logic of this structure is, If the

condition true, then Module A, which may
consist of one or more statements, is
executed.
• Otherwise Module A is skipped and
control transfers to the next step of
algorithm.
 2.3 Control Structures
Double Alternative:
• This structure has the form

• The logic of this structure is, If the

condition true, then Module A, is
executed.
• Otherwise Module B is executed.
 2.3 Control Structures
Multiple Alternative:
• This structure has the form

• The logic of this structure allows

only one module to be executed.
• The module which follows the first
condition is executed.
• The module which follows the final
Else statement is executed.
 2.3 Control Structures
yes
If? Module A

No Multiple Alternatives
Else yes
Module B
if ?

No

Else yes
Module n
if ?

Else Module
 2.3 Control Structures
This algorithm input two numbers NUM1 & NUM2 and
compare them.
Step1. Read NUM1, NUM2.
Step2. If NUM1 > NUM2, then :
Write: NUM1, ”greater than ”, NUM2.
Else if NUM1 < NUM2, then :
Write: NUM1, ”less than ”, NUM2.
Else :
Write: NUM1, ”is equal to”, NUM2.
[End of If structure.]
Step3. Exit.
 2.3 Control Structures
(3) Iteration Logic (Repetitive Flow):
• This kind of logic refers to either of two types of structure
involving loops.
• Each type begins with Repeat statement and is followed by
a module, called the body of loop.
• We indicate the end of the structure by the statement [End
of Loop.]
• There are two types of iteration logic:
– Repeat for loop
– Repeat while loop
 2.3 Control Structures
i. Repeat for loop:
• The loop will usually have the form:
• This loop uses an index variable, such as K,
to control the loop.
• Here R is called the initial value, S the end
value or test value, and T the increment.
• Loop is executed first with K=R, then with
K=R+T, then with K=R+2T, and so on.
• The cycling ends when K>S.
 2.3 Control Structures
ii. Repeat while loop:
• The loop will usually have the form:
• This loop uses the condition to control the
loop.
• Cycling continues until the condition is
false.
 2.3 Control Structures

Note:
we can omit the word ‘step’.
We use repeat structures instead of Go to statements.
 Subalgorithm
• Complete & independently algorithm module
• Called/invoked by main algorithm / subalgorithm
• Receives values called arguments from
originating(calling) algorithm
• Perform computations
• Sends back the result to calling algorithm
 Subalgorithm
• Defined independently
– Can be called by different algorithms
– Can be called different times in same algorithm.
• NAME(PAR1, PAR2, PAR3…..)
Example
Example
The End