INTRODUCTION TO

THERMODYNAMICS
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 Q = W + ΔE ; ΔE is the increase in the energy of the system
 Q – the heat transferred to the system, W is the amount of work
transferred from the system
 This law is based on the principle of conservation of energy.
 In an ideal gas there are no intermolecular forces of attraction
and repulsion, hence internal energy is function of temperature,
U =f(T)
 E = Ek + Ep + U ; Ek – kinetic energy , Ep – potential energy
 In absence of motion & gravity Ek = 0 & Ep = 0
 Q = ΔU + W
 ΔW = ΔW shaft + ΔW pdv + ΔW electrical + ……. , if pdV work is only
present then ΔQ = ΔU + pdV
SPECIFIC HEATS
 AT CONSTANT VOLUME cv = [∂u/∂T] v
 For constant volume process ΔQ = ΔU ; cv = [∂Q/∂T] v
 At constant pressure cp = [∂h/∂t] p ; h is enthalpy of the
substance h = u + pv ; since dQ = du + pdv, at constant
pressure pdv = d(pv); (dQ)p = du + d(pv) = d(u + pv)
 (dQ)p = dh ; or heat transferred at constant pressure increase
the enthalpy of the system.
 For an ideal gas the enthalpy becomes h = u + RT. Since
internal energy of the ideal gas depends only on the
temperature, the enthalpy of an ideal gas depends on
temperature only. H = f(T)
SPECIFIC HEATS

 SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT PRESSURE

 cp =[∂h/∂t]p ; dQ = du + pdv
 h= u + pv, therefore dh =du + pdv +vdp= dQ + vdp
 dQ = dh – vdp
 Or [dQ] p =dh
ISENTROPIC PROCESS
 In engineering analysis, isentropic efficiency is a
parameter to measure the degree of degradation of
energy in steady-flow devices. It involves a
comparison between the actual performance of a
device and the performance that would be achieved
under idealized circumstances for the same inlet and
exit states. Although there exits heat transfer
between the device and its surroundings, most
steady-flow devices are intended to operate under
adiabatic condition. Hence, normally an
isentropic process is chosen to serve as the
idealized process.
ISENTROPIC PROCESS

 ENTROPY REMAINS SAME FOR A SYSTEM FROM

INITIATION TO COMPLETION. A REVERSIBLE
ADIABATIC PROCESS IS CALLED AN ISENTROPIC
PROCESS. FOR AN ADIABATIC PROCESS NO HEAT IS
TRANSFERRED TO OR FROM THE SYSTEM OR
dQ = 0
 FROM FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS dU + dW
= dQ or dU = dW - pdV. HENCE FOR AN
ADIABATIC PROCESS WORK HAS TO BE DONE AT
THE EXPENSE OF INTERNAL ENERGY U
ISENTROPIC PROCESS

 NOW ENTHALPY H = U + pV, HENCE CHANGE IN

ENTHALPY dH = d(U + pV) = (dU + pdV) + Vdp
 SINCE WORK DONE dW = -pdV ( if work is done on
the system)
 FOR REVERSIBLE ADIABATIC PROCESS dQ = 0 &
dS = 0
 SINCE dQ = dU + pdV ; dH = dQ + Vdp
 SINCE CHANGE IN ENTHALPY IS EQUAL TO THE
HEAT TRANSFERRED AT CONSTANT PRESSURE ;
HENCE dH = Cp dT
ISENTROPIC PROCESS
 dH = Vdp = CpdT
 SINCE dQ = TdS & dQ = dH – Vdp
 HENCE ds = (1/T) *dH – (V/T)* dp
 ds = (1/T) * Cp dT – R * (dp/p), since pV =RT
hence V/T = R/p
 Integrating S2 – S1= Cp * ln[T2/T1] – R*ln[ p2/p1]
 For an isentropic process dS = 0 ;
 hence Cp * ln[T2/T1] = R*ln[ p2/p1]
 ln[ p2/p1] = Cp/R * ln[T2/T1] or
 [ p2/p1] = [T2/T1]Cp/R
ISENTROPIC PROCESS
 SINCE Cp/Cv = γ & Cp – Cv = R ; therefore Cp/R = γ/(1-γ)
 p2/p1 = [ T2/T1]γ/(1-γ)
 p2/p1= [V1/V2]γ = [ρ2/ρ1] γ = [ T2/T1]γ/(1-γ)
FLOW & NON FLOW PROCESSES
 A change or series of changes in an open system is
referred to as FLOW PROCESS. In this process work
done wfp = - ∫v*dp = -∫(1/ρ)*dp= -∫dh
 Examples : FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES, DIFFUSERS
AND DUCTS, FLOW THROUGH A STEAM, GAS OR
HYDRAULIC TURBINE
 A change or a series of changes in a closed system is
referred to as a NON-FLOW PROCESS. wnfp = ∫p*dv
 Examples: CONSTANT VOLUME HEATING & COOLING
OF A GAS OR A VAPOUR, EXPANSION OR
COMPRESSION IN RECIPROCATING ENGINES AND
COMPRESSORS
THE ENERGY EQUATION

 From FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Q = W + (E2- E1); here E may include gravitational
potential energy, kinetic energy, internal energy,
strain energy, magnetic energy etc. Hence we can
write E = U + mgZ + ½ mc2

KINETIC ENERGY
INTERNAL ENERGY
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
THE ENERGY EQUATION

 E = U + mgZ + ½ mc2 ; the differential form of this

equation is dE = dU + mg*dZ + ½*m* d[c2]
 Integrating we get : E2 – E1 = (U2-U1) + mg*(Z2-Z1)
+ ½* m *(c22 – c12)
 Since Q = W + (E2- E1); hence Q = W + (U2-U1) +
mg*(Z2-Z1) + ½* m *(c22 – c12)
 In terms of specific values q = w + (u2-u1) + mg*(z2-
z1) + ½*(c22 – c12)
THE ENERGY EQUATION FOR FLOW
PROCESS
 Work (W) includes shaft work (Ws ) & flow work
 W = Ws + (p2V2 – p1V1)
 Q = Ws + (p2V2 – p1V1) + (U2-U1) + mg*(Z2-Z1) +
½* m *(c22 – c12)
 Q = Ws + (U2+ p2V2) – (U1+ p1V1) + mg*(Z2-Z1) +
½* m *(c22 – c12)
 Since U + pV =H ; Q = Ws + (H2 – H1) + mg*(Z2-Z1)
+ ½* m *(c22 – c12)
 H1+mgZ1+ 1/2*m* c12 + Q = H2 + mgZ2 +
1/2*m* c22 + Ws
THE ENERGY EQUATION FOR FLOW
PROCESS
 In terms of specific energy h1 + gZ1 + ½*c12 + q =
h2 + gZ2 + ½*c22 +ws (STEADY FLOW EQUATIONS)
 Generally in flow problems of gases & vapours the
magnitude of g(Z2 – Z1) is negligible compared to
other quantities.
 Hence h1 + ½*c12 + q = h2 + ½*c22 +ws
 In adiabatic process the heat transfer (q) is
negligible, hence h1 + ½*c12 = h2 + ½*c22 +ws
 Some processes involve only energy transformations.
In these processes shaft work is absent.
 Hence h1 + ½*c12 = h2 + ½*c22
STAGNATION ENTHALPY

 Stagnation Enthalpy or total enthalpy (h0) is the

enthalpy of a flow at a stagnation point. It is the
enthalpy a flow would possess if brought to rest (zero
speed) isentropically from speed v.
 h0 = h + ½*c2
 SINCE dQ = TdS & dQ = dH – vdp ; for isentropic
and adiabatic process s0 = s (ds = 0); or stagnation
entropy is the same as static entropy for the given
particle. Therefore dh = vdp = dp/ρ
ENERGY EQUATION
 dQ = dE + dW or dQ/dt =dE/dt + dW/dt
 dE/dt = time rate of change of energy within the
control volume plus the outgoing energy flux minus
the incoming energy flux
 dE/dt = [∂E/∂t]cv + ∫out(e * dm) - ∫in(e * dm)
 The work includes shaft work and the flow work
 dW/dt = ∫outpv*dm - ∫inpv * dm + dWs/dt
 dQ/dt =[∂E/∂t]cv + ∫out(e + pv)* dm - ∫in (e + pv) * dm) + dWs/dt
 Now e = u + ½*c2 +gZ
 Therefore e + pv = (u+pv) + ½*c2 +gZ
 Or e + pv = h + ½*c2 +gZ
ENERGY EQUATION
 dQ/dt =[∂E/∂t]cv + ∫out(h + ½*c2 +gZ)* dm - ∫in (h + ½*c2
+gZ ) * dm) + dWs/dt
 For steady flow [∂E/∂t]cv = 0
 For adiabatic process dQ/dt = 0
 dWs/dt = ∫in(h + ½*c2 +gZ)* dm - ∫out (h + ½*c2 +gZ ) * dm
 Hence for steady & steady adiabatic process
 dWs/dt = m[(h1 + ½*c1 +gZ1) - (h2 + ½*c2 +gZ2 )]
2 2

 For gases Z1 = Z2, and putting h + ½*c = h0

2

 dWs/dt =m(h01 – h02) , the energy transfer as

work per unit mass flow is therefore numerically equal to the
change in the stagnation enthalpy of the fluid between the
turbomachine inlet & outlet.
ENERGY EQUATION

 In power generating turbomachine w (= Ws/m) is

positive so that ∆h0 is negative i.e., the total enthalpy
of the flowing fluid decreases from the inlet to the
exit.
 In a power absorbing device, mechanical energy
input occurs so that the stagnation enthalpy of the
fluid increases from inlet to the exit.
 ISENTROPIC PROCESS

An isentropic process is an idealization of an actual process, and serves as a

limiting case for an actual process.
ISENTROPIC PROCESS
 ISENTROPIC PROCESS

w
cv

2
ACTUAL PROCESS – ADIABATIC , IDEALISED PROCESS – ISENTROPIC,
FIXED INLET & OUTLET PRESSURE, NEGLECT KINETIC & POTENTIAL
ENERGY CHANGES.
 ISENTROPIC PROCESS FOR COMPRESSORS

ηC = Isentropic compressor (pump) work/Actual compressor (pump) work

= ws/wa
ISENTROPIC PROCESS FOR TURBINES

ηT = Actual turbine work/Isentropic turbine work

= wa/ws