Maxwell’s Equations

q
S E  dA  εo Gauss's law  electric 

 B  dA  0
S
Gauss's law in magnetism

dB
 E  ds   dt Faraday's law

dE
 B  ds  μo I  εo μo dt Ampere-Maxwell law
•The two Gauss’s laws are symmetrical, apart from the absence of the term for
magnetic monopoles in Gauss’s law for magnetism
•Faraday’s law and the Ampere-Maxwell law are symmetrical in that the line
integrals of E and B around a closed path are related to the rate of change of
the respective fluxes
• Gauss’s law (electrical):
• The total electric flux through any
q
S E  dA  εo
closed surface equals the net charge
inside that surface divided by eo
• This relates an electric field to the
charge distribution that creates it

• Gauss’s law (magnetism):

• The total magnetic flux through
any closed surface is zero
• This says the number of field lines

 B  dA  0
that enter a closed volume must
equal the number that leave that
volume
• This implies the magnetic field S
lines cannot begin or end at any
point
• Isolated magnetic monopoles have
not been observed in nature
• Faraday’s law of Induction:
• This describes the creation of an electric field by a
changing magnetic flux
•
dB
The law states that the emf, which is the line

 E  ds   dt
integral of the electric field around any closed
path, equals the rate of change of the magnetic flux
through any surface bounded by that path
• One consequence is the current induced in a
conducting loop placed in a time-varying B

• The Ampere-Maxwell law is a generalization of

Ampere’s law

dE
 B  ds  μo I  εo μo dt
• It describes the creation of a magnetic field by an
electric field and electric currents
• The line integral of the magnetic field around any
closed path is the given sum
 Maxwell’s Equation’s in integral form
Q 1
 A E  dA  eo  eo V
dV Gauss’s Law

 A
B  dA  0 Gauss’s Law for Magnetism

d B d Faraday’s Law
 C E  d   dt   dt A B  dA
d E  dE 
C B  d  o Iencl  oeo dt  o A  J  eo dt   dA
Ampere’s Law
 Maxwell’s Equation’s in free space
(no charge or current)

 A
E  dA  0 Gauss’s Law

 A
B  dA  0 Gauss’s Law for Magnetism

d B d
 C E  d   dt   dt A B  dA Faraday’s Law

d E d
 C B  d  oeo dt  oeo dt A E  dA Ampere’s Law
 Hertz’s Experiment
• An induction coil is connected to a
transmitter
• The transmitter consists of two spherical
electrodes separated by a narrow gap
• The discharge between the electrodes
exhibits an oscillatory behavior at a very
high frequency
• Sparks were induced across the gap of the
receiving electrodes when the frequency of
the receiver was adjusted to match that of
the transmitter
• In a series of other experiments, Hertz also
showed that the radiation generated by this
equipment exhibited wave properties
– Interference, diffraction, reflection, refraction
and polarization
• He also measured the speed of the radiation
 Implication
• A magnetic field will be produced in empty space if there
is a changing electric field. (correction to Ampere)
• This magnetic field will be changing. (originally there
was none!)
• The changing magnetic field will produce an electric field.
(Faraday)
• This changes the electric field.
• This produces a new magnetic field.
• This is a change in the magnetic field.
 An antenna

Hook up an
AC source

We have changed the magnetic

field near the antenna

An electric field results! This is

the start of a “radiation field.”
 Look at the cross section
Called:
“Electromagnetic Waves”
Accelerating
electric charges
give rise to
electromagnetic
waves

E and B are perpendicular (transverse)

We say that the waves are “polarized.”
E and B are in phase (peaks and zeros align)
 Angular Dependence of Intensity

• This shows the angular

dependence of the radiation
intensity produced by a dipole
antenna
• The intensity and power
radiated are a maximum in a
plane that is perpendicular to
the antenna and passing
through its midpoint
• The intensity varies as
(sin2 θ / r2
 Harmonic Plane Waves
At t = 0
E l  spatial period or
wavelength

x
l

At x = 0 l 2 l 
v   fl  
E T T 2 k

t
T  temporal period
T
Applying Faraday to radiation

d B
 C E  d   dt
 E  d   E  dE  y  Ey  dEy
C

d B dB
 dxy
dt dt
dB
dEy   dxy
dt
dE dB

dx dt
Applying Ampere to radiation
d E
 C B  d  oeo dt

 B  d  Bz   B  dB z  dBz

C
d E dE
 dxz
dt dt
dE
dBz   o eo dxz
dt
dB dE
 o eo
dx dt
 Fields are functions of both
position (x) and time (t)
dE dB Partial derivatives E B
 
dx dt are appropriate
x t

dB dE B E
 o eo   o eo
dx dt x t

E2
 B  B 2E
  o eo 2
x 2
x t t x t

2E 2E This is a wave

 o eo 2
x 2
t equation!
 The Trial Solution
• The simplest solution to the partial differential
equations is a sinusoidal wave:
– E = Emax cos (kx – ωt)
– B = Bmax cos (kx – ωt)
• The angular wave number is k = 2π/λ
– λ is the wavelength
• The angular frequency is ω = 2πƒ
– ƒ is the wave frequency
 The trial solution
E  E y  Eo sin  kx  t 
2E 2E
 o eo 2
x 2
t

2E 2E
 k E o sin  kx  t 
2
  E o sin  kx  t 
2

x 2
t 2

k 2Eo sin  kx  t   oeo2Eo sin  kx  t 

2 1

k 2
oe o
 The speed of light
(or any other electromagnetic radiation)

l 2 l 
v   fl  
T T 2 k

 1
vc 
k o e o
The electromagnetic spectrum
l 2 l 
v   fl  
T T 2 k
 Another look
dE dB

dx dt
B  Bz  Bo sin  kx  t  E  E y  Eo sin  kx  t 

d d
E o sin  kx  t    Bo sin  kx  t 
dx dt

Eo k cos  kx  t   Bo cos  kx  t 

Eo  1
 c
Bo k o e o
 Energy in Waves
1 1 2
u  e0 E 
2
B
2 20

u  e0 E 2

Eo  1 2
 c
1 u B
Bo k o e o 0

e0
u EB
0
 Poynting Vector
S
1
0
EB 
EB E 2 c B 2
S  
μo μo c μo

S  cu
• Poynting vector points in the direction the wave moves
• Poynting vector gives the energy passing through a unit
area in 1 sec.
• Units are Watts/m2
 Intensity
• The wave intensity, I, is the time average of
S (the Poynting vector) over one or more
cycles
• When the average is taken, the time average
of cos2(kx - ωt) = ½ is involved
2 2
E max Bmax E max c Bmax
I  S av     cu ave
2 μo 2 μo c 2 μo
 Radiation Pressure
F 1 dp
P 
A A dt

U
Maxwell showed: p  (Absorption of radiation
by an object)
c

1 dU Save
P 
Ac dt c
What if the radiation reflects off an object?
 Pressure and Momentum
• For a perfectly reflecting surface,
p = 2U/c and P = 2S/c
• For a surface with a reflectivity somewhere
between a perfect reflector and a perfect absorber,
the momentum delivered to the surface will be
somewhere in between U/c and 2U/c
• For direct sunlight, the radiation pressure is about
5 x 10-6 N/m2