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Gauss Elimination
1
Introduction
2
Linear Algebraic Equations
a11 x1 a12 x2 a1n xn b1
a 21 x1 a22 x2 a2 n xn b2
a n1 x1 a n 2 x2 a nn xn bn
Nonlinear Equations
a11 x1 a12 x1 x2 a1n ( xn ) 5 b1
a21 ( x1 ) 3 a 22 e x2 a 2 n ( x2 ) 3 / xn b2
a x a x a x b
n1 1 n2 2 nn n n
3
Review of Matrices
a 11 a 12 a 1m
a a 2 m
a 22 2nd row Elements are indicated by a
[A]
21 ij
a n1 a n2 a nm n m
row column
mth column
Square matrix:
c m m 1
- [A]nxm is a square matrix if n=m.
- A system of n equations with n unknonws has a square
coefficient matrix. 4
Review of Matrices
• Main (principle) diagonal:
[A]nxn consists of elements aii ; i=1,...,n
• Symmetric matrix:
If aij = aji [A]nxn is a symmetric matrix
• Diagonal matrix:
[A]nxn is diagonal if aij = 0 for all i=1,...,n ; j=1,...,n
and ij
• Identity matrix:
[A]nxn is an identity matrix if it is diagonal with a ii=1
i=1,...,n . Shown as [I] 5
Review of Matrices
• Upper triangular matrix:
6
Special Types of Square Matrices
5 1 2 16 a 11 1
1 3 7 39
[ A] [D ] a 22 [I ]
1
2 7 9 6 1
16 39 6 88 a nn 1
Symmetric Diagonal Identity
a11 a12 a1n a11
a a a a
[ A] 22 2n [ A ] 21 22
a nn a n1 a nn
Upper Triangular Lower Triangular
7
Review of Matrices
• Matrix multiplication:
r
Note: [A][B] [B][A]
cij aik bkj
k 1
8
Review of Matrices
• Determinant of a matrix:
A single number. Determinant of [A] is shown as |A|.
9
Part 3- Objectives
10
Solving Small Numbers of Equations
13
Graphical Method
15
2.Determinants and Cramer’s Rule
Determinant can be illustrated for a set of three
equations:
A . x B
Where [A] is the coefficient matrix:
a 11 a 12 a 13
A a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33
16
Cramer’s Rule
a11 a12 a13 b1 a12 a13
D a21 a22 a23 b2 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 b3 a32 a33
x1
a22 a23 D
D11 a22 a33 a32 a23
a32 a33 a11 b1 a13
a21 a23 a21 b2 a23
D12 a21 a33 a31 a23 a31 b3 a33
a31 a33 x2
a21 a22 D
D13 a21 a32 a31 a22
a31 a32 a11 a12 b1
a21 a22 b2
a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22 a31 a32 b3
D a11 a12 a13 x3
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32 D
17
Cramer’s Rule
• For a singular system D = 0 Solution can not
be obtained.
18
19
20
3. Method of Elimination
• The basic strategy is to successively solve one of
the equations of the set for one of the
unknowns and to eliminate that variable from
the remaining equations by substitution.
21
Elimination of Unknowns Method
2.5x1 + 6.2x2 = 3.0
Given a 2x2 set of equations:
4.8x1 - 8.6x2 = 5.5
23
Naive Gauss Elimination Method
• Consider the following system of n equations.
25
Naive Gauss Elimination Method (cont’d)
28
Pseudo-code of Naive Gauss Elimination Method
k,j
29
Naive Gauss Elimination Method
Example 1
6 –2 2 4 | 16
12 –8 6 10 | 26 R2-2R1
3 –13 9 3 | -19 R3-0.5R1
-6 4 1 -18 | -34 R4-(-R1) 30
Naive Gauss Elimination Method
Example 1 (cont’d)
Step 1: Forward elimination
31
Naive Gauss Elimination Method
Example 1 (cont’d)
Step 2: Back substitution
Find x4 x4 =(-3)/(-3) = 1
Find x3 x3 =(-9+5*1)/2 = -2
Find x2 x2 =(-6-2*(-2)-2*1)/(-4) = 1
Find x1 x1 =(16+2*1-2*(-2)-4*1)/6= 3
32
Naive Gauss Elimination Method Example 2
(Using 6 Significant Figures)
3.0 x1 - 0.1 x2 - 0.2 x3 = 7.85
0.1 x1 + 7.0 x2 - 0.3 x3 = -19.3 R2-(0.1/3)R1
0.3 x1 - 0.2 x2 + 10.0 x3 = 71.4 R3-(0.3/3)R1
33
Naive Gauss Elimination Method Example 2
(cont’d)
Step 2: Back substitution
x3 = 7.00003
x2 = -2.50000
x1 = 3.00000
Exact solution:
x3 = 7.0
x2 = -2.5
x1 = 3.0
34
Pitfalls of Gauss Elimination Methods
1. Division by zero
2 x2 + 3 x 3 = 8
a11 = 0
4 x1 + 6 x2 + 7 x3 = -3 (the pivot element)
2 x1 + x 2 + 6 x3 = 5
35
Pitfalls of Gauss Elimination (cont’d)
3. Ill-conditioned systems
x1 + 2x2 = 10
1.1x1 + 2x2 = 10.4 x1 = 4.0 & x2 = 3.0
x1 + 2x2 = 10
1.05x1 + 2x2 = 10.4 x1 = 8.0 & x2 = 1.0
37
Techniques for Improving Solutions
1. Use of more significant figures to solve for the
round-off error.
2. Pivoting. If a pivot element is zero, elimination step
leads to division by zero. The same problem may arise,
when the pivot element is close to zero. This Problem
can be avoided by:
Partial pivoting. Switching the rows so that the
largest element is the pivot element.
Complete pivoting. Searching for the largest element
in all rows and columns then switching.
3. Scaling
Solve problem of ill-conditioned system.
Minimize round-off error
38
Partial Pivoting
39
Use of more significant figures to solve for the round-off error
:Example.
2 2.0001 3(2 / 3)
x2 x1
3 0.0003
Significant
Figures x2 x1
3 0.667 -3.33
4 0.6667 0.000
5 0.66667 0.3000
6 0.666667 0.33000
7 0.6666667 0.333000
41
Pivoting: Example
Now, solving the pervious example using the partial
pivoting technique:
1.0000 x1+ 1.0000 x2 = 1.000
0.0003 x1+ 3.0000 x2 = 2.0001
The pivot is 1.0
1.0000 x1+ 1.0000 x2 = 1.000
2.9997 x2 = 1.9998
x2 = 0.6667 & x1=0.3333
Checking the effect of the # of significant digits:
# of dig x2 x1 Ea% in x1
( 1)
( n 1) p
D a a a L a
' ''
11 22 33 nn
where:
p represents the number of times that rows are pivoted
46
Example: Gauss Elimination
2x 2 x 4 0
2x 1 2x 2 3x 3 2x 4 2
4x 1 3x 2 x 4 7
6x 1 x 2 6 x 3 5x 4 6
a) Forward Elimination
�
0 2 0 1 0� 6 1 6 5
� 6�
� � � �
2 2 3 2
� 2 � 2 2 3 2
� 2 �
��
�R 4
R 1 ��
�
�
4 3 0 1 7 � �
4 3 0 1 7 �
� � � �
6 1 6 5
� 6� 0 2 0 1
� 0�
47
Example: Gauss Elimination (cont’d)
6 1 6 5
� 6�
� �
2 2 3 2
� 2 �R 2 0.33333 �
R1
�
4 3 0 1 7 �R 3 0.66667 �
R1
� �
0 2 0 1
� 0�
�
6 1 6 5 6 �
� �
0 1.6667
� 5 3.6667 4 �
��
�R 3
R 2 ��
�
�
0 3.6667 4 4.3333 11�
� �
0
� 2 0 1 0 �
�
6 1 6 5 6 �
� �
0 3.6667 4 4.3333
� 11�
�
0 1.6667 5 3.6667 4 �
� �
0
� 2 0 1 0 �
Example: Gauss Elimination (cont’d)
�
6 1 6 5 6 �
� �
0 3.6667 4 4.3333
� 11�
�
0 1.6667 5 3.6667 4 �R 3 0.45455 �
R2
� �
0
� 2 0 1 0 �R 4 0.54545 �
R2
�
6 1 6 5 6 �
� �
0 3.6667
� 4 4.3333 11 �
�
0 0 6.8182 5.6364 9.0001�
� �
0
� 0 2.1818 3.3636 5.9999 �R 4 0.32000 �
R3
�
6 1 6 5 6 �
� �
0 3.6667
� 4 4.3333 11 �
�
0 0 6.8182 5.6364 9.0001�
� �
0
� 0 0 1.5600 3.1199 �
49
Example: Gauss Elimination (cont’d)
�
6 1 6 5 6 �
� �
0 3.6667
� 4 4.3333 11 �
�
0 0 6.8182 5.6364 9.0001�
� �
0
� 0 0 1.5600 3.1199 �
b) Back Substitution
3.1199
x4 1.9999
1.5600
9.0001 5.6364 ( 1.9999 )
x3 0.33325
6.8182
11 4.3333 ( 1.9999 ) 4 ( 0.33325 )
x2 1.0000
3.6667
6 5 ( 1.9999 ) 6 ( 0.33325 ) 1( 1.0000 )
x1 0.50000 50
6
Gauss-Jordan Elimination
51
Gauss-Jordan Elimination- Example
�
0 2 0 1 0� 1 0.16667 1 0.83335
� 1�
� � �� �R 4 � �
2 2 3 2
� 2 �R 1��� 2
� 2 3 2 2 �
�
4 3 0 1 7 � R 4 / 6.0 �
4 3 0 1 7 �
� � � �
6 1 6 5
� 6� 0
� 2 0 1 0�
1 0.16667 1 0.83335
� 1�
� �
2
� 2 3 2 2 �R 2 2 �
R1
�
4 3 0 1 7 �R 3 4 �
R1
� �
0
� 2 0 1 0�
52
1 0.16667 1 0.83335
� 1�
� �
0 1.6667
� 5 3.6667 2 �
�
0 3.6667 4 4.3334 7 �
� �
0
� 2 0 1 0�
Dividing the 2nd row by 1.6667 and reducing the second column.
(operating above the diagonal as well as below) gives:
�
1 0 1.5 1.2000 1.4000 �
� �
0
� 1 2.9999 2.2000 2.4000�
�
0 0 15.000 12.400 19.800�
� �
0
� 0 5.9998 3.4000 4.8000 �
Divide the 3rd row by 15.000 and make the elements in the 3rd
Column zero.
53
�
1 0 0 0.04000 0.58000 �
� �
0
� 1 0 0.27993 1.5599 �
�
0 0 1 0.82667 1.3200 �
� �
0
� 0 0 1.5599 3.1197 �
Divide the 4th row by 1.5599 and create zero above the diagonal in the fourth
column.
�
1 0 0 0 0.49999�
� �
0
� 1 0 0 1.0001 �
�
0 0 1 0 0.33326�
� �
0
� 0 0 1 1.9999 �