Agenda

• Relational Constraints
• Keys
• Relational Algebra
• Structured Query Language (SQL)
 Relational Constraints

• Three Basic Integrity Constraints

– Constraints that are built into the relational data model
– Can be enforced by Data Definition Language (DDL) in
most systems
• Primary Key Constraint
– Uniqueness & Minimality
• Entity Constraint
– The Primary Key of a relation cannot be null
• Referential Integrity Constraint
– The value of a Foreign Key, if not null, must exist in the original
relation
 Relational Constraints

• Application-Dependent Constraints

– Domain constraints (range, min/max, enumerated

values)
• Enforced by using the CHECK clause in SQL
– Semantic constraints
• Enforced by triggers, stored procedures, and programs
 Keys

• Primary Key (PK)

– Uniqueness: uniquely identify each tuple (i.e. row) in a
relation
– Minimality: the least amount of attributes to uniquely
identify each tuple
• Foreign Key (FK)
– An attribute which is a PK in another relation
• Composite Key or Concatenated Key
– A PK that consists of multiple attributes
 Keys

• Candidate Key (CK)

– A set of attributes which can be used as a PK
– Example
• Doctor(SSN, Name, License#, DriverL#, Specialty, Age, School)
• CKs = {SSN, License#, DriverL#}
• Alternate Key
– A candidate key that was not designated as the PK
– Example
• If SSN is the PK, then all of the other CKs are alternate keys
 Keys

• Secondary key
– An attribute that is used for an index
• Search key
– An attribute that is used in a query
 Relational Algebra
• A basis for implementation of any relational query language
• A procedural language
Relations for Examples
• Set-at-a-time language Emp1 eno name Emp2 eno name Work eno dept

• Unary Operations 1
2
JOHN
TOM
3
5
JOHN
MARY
1
4
SALES
SALES
– SELECT 3 JOHN 5 TOY
4 BOB
• Extracts tuples (rows) that satisfy a condition
• Notation  condition(relation name)
• Example:
– Find all employees in the SALES department
» dept=“SALES”(Work) Work eno dept
1 SALES
– Find all employees that do not work for the TOY department and whose eno
4
isSALES
greater
than 2
» (eno>2) and (dept “TOY”)(Work)
– Can use any of the comparison operators (=, , <, , >, ) and
Work eno logical
dept operators (AND, OR,
NOT) 4 SALES
 Relational Algebra
Relations for Examples

• Unary Operations Emp1 eno name

1 JOHN
Emp2 eno name
3 JOHN
Work eno
1
dept
SALES
2 TOM 5 MARY 4 SALES
– PROJECT 3 JOHN 5 TOY
4 BOB
• Extracts attributes (columns) from a relation
• After projection, duplicate rows are removed
• Notation  condition(relation name)
• Example
– Find all employee names from emp1
– name(Emp1) name
JOHN
TOM
JOHN
BOB
 SQL: Overview
• What is SQL?
– Structured Query Language
– Developed at IBM’s San Jose research lab in early 1970s
– First called “Sequel”, then later renamed “SQL”
– SQL is descriptive (what to get), not a procedural language
(how to get)
– It is a SET-based language
– It is the real world implementation of Relational Algebra
 SQL: Overview (continued)
• What is SQL?
– Currently SQL-92 is the most implemented
standard by most vendors.

– SQL-99, which includes Object-Oriented Data

Management, and some procedural commands is
being implemented in vendor’s own flavors
 SQL: Language Subsets
• SQL
– DDL: Data Definition Language
• Create, Alter, Drop

– DCL: Data Control Language

• Grant and Revoke

– DML: Data Manipulation Language

• Select, Insert, Update, Delete
 SQL: DDL

• SQL  DDL  is  used  for  creating  and  destroying  DB  objects:  – 
Domains, Tables, Views, Indexes…
– Main SQL DDL statements are:

CREATE TABLE/ALTER TABLE DROP TABLE
CREATE VIEW DROP VIEW
CREATE INDEX DROP INDEX
Example:
CREATE TABLE Student (
sid CHAR(2),
firstName VARCHAR(15) ,
lastName VARCHAR(20) ,
login VARCHAR(7),
dob DATE
);
 SQL

• Enforcement of basic constraints in SQL

– Primary Key
• PRIMARY KEY clause
– Entity constraint
• NOT NULL keywords
– Referential integrity constraint
• FOREIGN KEY…REFERENCES clause
– Alternate key
• UNIQUE clause

• Application-dependent constraints
– Domain constraint
• CHECK clause
 SQL
• Another Example
create table employee(
employeeID number(5),
ssn char(9),
fName varchar(15)
lName varchar(15),
deptID number not null,
gender char(1),
constraint employee_pk primary key(employeeID),
constraint employee_fk1 foreign key (deptID) references
department(deptID) on delete restrict on update cascade,
constraint employee_uq1 unique (ssn),
constraint employee_ck1 check (gender IN (‘M’, ‘m’, ‘F’, ‘f’)));
 SQL: DDL

• Examples for ALTER TABLE

ALTER TABLE Student MODIFY (
lastName VARCHAR(25));

ALTER TABLE Student ADD(

gpa NUMBER(3,2));

• Example for DROP TABLE

DROP TABLE Student;
 SQL: DCL
• Syntax
GRANT {PrivilegeList | ALL PRIVILEGES}
ON ObjectName
TO {AuthorizationIdList | PUBLIC}
[WITH GRANT OPTION]

• Examples
a) Give Manager full privileges to Staff table.
GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES
ON Staff
TO Manager WITH GRANT OPTION;
b) Give Personnel and Director SELECT and UPDATE on column salary of Staff.
GRANT SELECT, UPDATE (salary)
ON Staff
TO Personnel, Director;
c) Permit SELECT and UPDATE access privileges to all users
GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON employee, project TO PUBLIC;
 SQL: DML

• SQL DML allows users to pose queries and to insert, delete

and modify data
– SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE

• SELECT
– THE most important statement in the language, with
maximum options/variations to it.
– Implements 3 relational algebra operations
• Selection, Projection, Join
 SQL: DML  SELECT

• Parts of SELECT statement

– SELECT clause : For Selection
– FROM clause : Which ‘Relation/Relations’ to use
– WHERE clause : For Join conditions, and Filtering
(i.e. search condition)
– ORDER BY : For sorting the output
– GROUP BY : For creating ‘data buckets’
– HAVING : For ‘filtering’ the ‘data buckets’
 SQL: DML  SELECT
• WHERE (used to specify search conditions)
– Comparison
• =, >, <, <>, NOT, AND, OR
– Range Search
• BETWEEN, NOT BETWEEN
– Set Membership search
• IN, NOT IN
– Pattern match search condition
• LIKE, NOT LIKE
– NULL search conditions
• IS NULL, IS NOT NULL
 SQL: DML  SELECT
• AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS (i.e. COLUMN FUNCTIONS)
– COUNT
– SUM
– AVG
– MIN
– MAX

• Examples:
a) SELECT AVG(e.age) FROM Employee e;

b) SELECT pnumber, pname, count(*)

FROM project, work_on
WHERE project.pnumber=work_on.pno
GROUP BY pnumber, pname
HAVING count(*) >2
ORDER BY pname;
 SQL: DML  INSERT

• INSERT – 2 formats
– INSERT INTO tablename[(column_list)]…..VALUES (value_list)…..
– INSERT INTO tablename[(column_list)]…..AS SELECT…..

• Examples
a) INSERT INTO Student(sid, name, login, age, gpa) VALUES (53688, ‘SMITH’,
‘SMITH@EE’, 18, 3.2);
b) INSERT INTO project VALUES(1234, ‘PERFECT PROJECT’, NULL, ‘JOHN’);

TIP: Insert values in capital letters.

 SQL: DML  UPDATE

• Syntax
UPDATE tablename SET fieldname=VALUE
[WHERE fieldname comparisonOperator VALUE];

– If WHERE clause is specified, then only those rows that satisfy the
condition will be updated
– If WHERE clause is NOT specified, then ALL rows will be updated
• Examples:

UPDATE student s SET UPDATE project SET

s.age=s.age +1 WHERE budget=1.1*budget
sid=53688; WHERE projno>1000;
 SQL: DML  DELETE

• Syntax
DELETE FROM tablename
[WHERE fieldname comparisonOperator VALUE];

– If WHERE clause is specified, then only those rows that satisfy the
condition will be deleted
– If WHERE clause is NOT specified, then ALL rows will be deleted
• Examples:

DELETE FROM project DELETE FROM student;

WHERE manager =‘JOHN’;
 SQL

• The result of a SQL query is a relation, but…

– Does not automatically eliminate redundant tuples
– To remove redundant records from the result set, then use
the keyword DISTINCT immediately after the keyword
SELECT
– Set operations (UNION, INTERSECTION and MINUS) do
remove redundant tuples
– Attributes are stored by the sequence in which they are
listed in the CREATE command
– Tuples are not ordered

• SELECT in SQL is the same as PROJECT in the

relational algebra
 SQL

• Convention for NULL values in SQL

– Null value is allowed as the default
– Use keywords NOT NULL, if you don’t want null values
– SUM, MIN, MAX, AVG, COUNT DISTINCT do not include
null values
– COUNT includes null values
– Null values do not participate in comparisons
– Null values are not included in an index
 Creating Script Files

• It is best to write your SQL statements in a script file. A

script file is a text file that has the file extension sql (e.g.
test.sql). You can use any text editor (e.g. NotePad) to
create the script file. We will use Textpad.