PERCEPTION

What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?

• People’s behavior is
based on their
perception of what
reality is, not on
reality itself.
• The world as it is
perceived is the world
that is behaviorally
important.
Factors That
Influence
Perception
Person Perception: Making Judgments About
Others

Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.

Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.
Consistency: responds in the same way over time.
Attribution Theory
Why is this baby smiling?
Personal attributions
Explanations in terms of personal
characteristics. For example:
– “The baby must be a happy baby.”
Other examples:
– “He scored well on the exam because
he is smart.”
– “She tripped because she is clumsy.”
 Situational attributions
Explanations in terms of situational
factors. For example:
– “Someone must have just played with the
baby .”
Other examples:
– “He scored well because it was an easy
test.”
– “She tripped because a squirrel ran in front
of her.”
 If consistency is high, and distinctiveness
/ consensus are low, then a personal
attribution is more likely:
– “The baby is always smiling, never displays other
emotions (like crying), and this is not typical of
babies in general. Therefore, this baby must have
a happy disposition.”
 If consistency is high, and distinctiveness
/ consensus are also high, then a
situational attribution is more likely.
– “The baby is always smiling when tickled, but
displays different emotions in other circumstances.
Smiling when tickled is typical of all babies.
Therefore, this baby is smiling because it was
tickled”
Errors and Biases in Attributions
Errors and Biases in Attributions (cont’d)
Self-serving bias

 People do not make objective situational /

personal attributions for their own behavior,
though.
 They tend to attribute their successes to
dispositional factors, and their failures to
situational factors.
 For example: “I did well on the test because I
am smart,” or “I did poor on the test because I
didn’t get enough sleep.
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Specific Applications in Organizations
 Employment Interview
– Perceptual biases affect the accuracy of interviewers’
judgments of applicants.
 Performance Expectations
– Self-fulfilling prophecy (pygmalion effect): The lower or
higher performance of employees reflects preconceived
leader expectations about employee capabilities.
 Performance Evaluations
– Appraisals are subjective perceptions of performance.
 Employee Effort
– Assessment of individual effort is a subjective
judgment subject to perceptual distortion and bias.
The Link Between Perceptions and Individual
Decision Making

Perceptions
of the
decision
maker

Outcomes
Assumptions of the Rational Decision-Making
Model

1. Problem clarity
2. Known options
3. Clear preferences
4. Constant
preferences
5. No time or cost
constraints
6. Maximum payoff
How Are Decisions Actually Made in
Organizations
How Are Decisions Actually Made in
Organizations (cont’d)

 How/Why problems are identified

– Visibility over importance of problem
• Attention-catching, high profile problems
• Desire to “solve problems”
– Self-interest (if problem concerns decision maker)
 Alternative Development
– Satisficing: seeking the first alternative that solves
problem.
– Engaging in incremental rather than unique problem
solving through successive limited comparison of
alternatives to the current alternative in effect.
Making Choices
Making Choices
Organizational Constraints on Decision Makers
 Performance Evaluation
– Evaluation criteria influence the choice of actions.
 Reward Systems
– Decision makers make action choices that are favored
by the organization.
 Formal Regulations
– Organizational rules and policies limit the alternative
choices of decision makers.
 System-imposed Time Constraints
– Organizations require decisions by specific deadlines.
 Historical Precedents
– Past decisions influence current decisions.