1

Microstructure-Properties:
Intro
Composite
Composites
Applns.
Properties
Processing
Voigt, Performance
Reuss, 27-301
Hill
A. D. Rollett,
Anistrpy.
M. De Graef
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Microstructure Properties
Wood

Last modified: 2nd Nov. ‘15

 2

Lecture Objectives: Composites

• The main objective of this lecture is to introduce you to
microstructure-property relationships in composite
Intro
materials.
Composite
Applns. • Composite materials constitute a huge class of materials.
Properties The objective of this lecture will therefore be to provide
Voigt, some definitions and describe some of the basic
Reuss, relationships.
Hill
• Cellular materials will be emphasized because of their
Anistrpy.
connection to natural materials (biomaterials) and
CTE
especially wood, which some of you will study in the
Cellular second Lab.
Matls.
Wood
 3
Questions & Answers for Part 1
1. What are the general advantages of composite
materials over monolithic materials? Give both
biomaterial and man-made examples. Composites
generally have higher specific properties. Wood and
carbon-fiber reinforced plastics are examples.
Intro 2. What is the rule of mixtures as applied to composites?
Integrate the property of interest over the volume of
Composite the composite.
Applns. 3. What do the terms isostress and isostrain mean? As
implied, iso-stress means same stress in all materials;
Properties iso-strain means same strain in all materials. For iso-
stress you can think of the phases as being connected
Voigt, in series between the planes across which the load is
transmitted (and vice versa for iso-strain).
Reuss, 4. Derive the isostrain model. See the notes; derivation
Hill relies on averaging the stresses in the different phases.
5. Derive the isostress model. See the notes; derivation
Anistrpy. relies on averaging the strains in the different phases.
6. Sketch the variations in modulus expected for
CTE composites in which the components have strongly
different moduli. See the notes; iso-strain model gives
Cellular linear variation (same as Rule of Mixtures in this case)
Matls. whereas iso-stress model gives non-linear variation.
Wood
7. Explain what is meant by the Voigt, Reuss and Hill
average moduli. Voigt=iso-strain, Reuss=iso-
stress, Hill averages these two.
8. Which model for stiffness applies to a composite
material with a compliant matrix and a well
dispersed particulate second phase that is stiffer
(than the matrix)? In this case, the Reuss (iso-
stress) model applies because the individual
particles are not connected and thus there is little
load transfer between them.
9. Which model for stiffness applies to a composite
material with a compliant matrix and a well
dispersed, parallel, stiff fibers that is loaded along
the fiber direction? In this case, the Voigt (iso-
strain) model applies because the individual fibers
are strained equally with the matrix.
10. Why are cellular or foam materials useful for
achieving low modulus? By making a substantial
fraction of the “material” empty space (air or
trapped gas), one can reduce the modulus to the
volume average of the solid material and gas.
This accesses modulus values that are
inaccessible to fully dense materials.
 4 Examinable

Key points
• Composites are regarded as artificial (man-made) mixtures of
phases.
Intro • Classification of composites by reinforcement type (dimensionality)
Composite - particles, fibers and laminated.
Applns. • Application of the Rule of Mixtures.
Properties • Dependence of composite properties on the spatial arrangement of
Voigt, the phases.
Reuss, • Upper and lower bounds on properties - example of elastic
Hill modulus, Voigt and Reuss approximations.
Anistrpy. • High property:density ratios achievable with composites.
CTE • Engineering with residual stress in composites.
Cellular • Anisotropy of composite properties, e.g. elastic modulus.
Matls.
• Properties of wood as a cellular material.
Wood • Cellular/foam materials as shock absorbers.
 5

Examples

Intro
Composite
Applns.
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 6 Examinable

What are Composites?

• Composite materials contain more than one phase.
Intro
• Almost all materials contain more than one phase, so
Composite
what’s the difference?
Applns. • The term composite is typically applied to a material when
Properties the multi-phase structure is constructed by direct
Voigt, intervention (external to the material).
Reuss,
Hill
• Composite Material Examples: glass fiber reinforced
Anistrpy.
plastic (GRP), wood, clam shell, Mars bar.
CTE • Multi-phase Material Examples: precipitation
Cellular strengthened aluminum alloys, Ti-6Al-4V, dual-phase
Matls. steel, transformation toughened alumina (Al2O3-CeO2).
Wood • Caution! There is some overlap between the categories!
 7 Examinable

Properties
• It is useful to review the basic properties of the different
types of materials that are used in composites.
Intro • Polymers - long [carbon] chain molecules with anything
Composite from van der Waals bonding between the chains
Applns.
(thermoplastics) to covalent links (thermosets). Low
Properties
density, low modulus compared to other materials. Often
Voigt,
Reuss,
highly formable (ductile).
Hill • Ceramics - ionic or covalent bonding, lower symmetry
Anistrpy. crystal structures, high melting point and modulus,
CTE resistant to degradation, brittle, high modulus.
Cellular • Metals - metallic bonding, symmetric crystal structures,
Matls.
medium melting point, medium modulus, ductile,
Wood formable, variable resistance to degradation.
 8

Why Use Composites? [Biomaterials]

• In nature, the basic materials tend to be weak and/or brittle.
Evolution has resulted in structures that combine materials together
Intro for properties that far exceed those that could be obtained in the
Composite basic materials.
Applns. • The basic inorganic constituent of bone, for example, is calcium
Properties phosphate in the form of crystalline Ca10(PO4)6(OH) and amorphous
CaPO3. This ceramic is brittle and not particularly stiff. The matrix of
Voigt,
Reuss,
fibrous collagen is tough but even less stiff. When embedded
Hill arranged in the form of a cellular material, however, remarkable
values of stiffness:density and toughness:density are achieved (and
Anistrpy.
land-based multi-tonne creatures are possible such as elephants).
CTE
• A similar situation exists in wood where the basic materials are quite
Cellular compliant but arranged in the multi-level composite forms that we
Matls. know, high values of strength:density and toughness:density result.
Wood
 9

Why Use Composites? [Man-made]

• The basic reason for the use of composites is always the
same: some combination of properties can be achieved
Intro
that is impossible in a monolithic material [for a given cost].
Composite
Applns. • In SiC-reinforced aluminum for brake rotors, for example,
Properties the combination of light weight, toughness (from the Al
Voigt, matrix at ~ 2.7 Mgm/m3), and stiffness (from the SiC
Reuss, additions) is not possible in either constituent by itself.
Hill
• In Cu-Nb for high strength electrical conductors, the
Anistrpy.
combination of >1 GPa yield strength and high electrical
CTE
conductivity (in the Cu) could never be achieved in either
Cellular constituent by itself. In this case the high strength is a
Matls.
synergistic property of the composite.
Wood
 10 Examinable

Key aspects of composites

• Composites are expensive to make, as
Intro compared to monolithic materials, especially if
Composite the shape and arrangement of the phases must
Applns.
be controlled.
Properties
Voigt, • Therefore there must be a strong motivation for
Reuss, making a composite structure to offset the cost.
Hill
Anistrpy. • The simplest composites are particulate
CTE composites. Laminates are next, followed by
Cellular fiber composites. Woven structures are the
Matls.
most complex.
Wood
 11 Examinable

Typical Microstructures
• We show next some typical microstructures.
Intro • In biomaterials, many are cellular composites at
Composite some length scale (typically around 1 µm).
Applns.
Properties • Man-made composites are more often fully
Voigt, dense. The three major [structural] material
Reuss, types are all used so the abbreviations MMC
Hill
Anistrpy.
[metal matrix composite], CMC [ceramic matrix
CTE composite], and PMC [polymer matrix composite]
Cellular are commonly used.
Matls.
Wood
 12
Cellular
Biomaterials
Note the variation in
Intro density; also the
presence of distinct
Composite
layers of cells in some
Applns.
woods, and in bone.
Properties
Voigt, Note also that the
Reuss, shape of the cells and
Hill their walls makes a
Anistrpy. difference to their
CTE properties.
Cellular
Matls.
Wood Gibson & Ashby:
Cellular Solids
 13

Man-made Examples
Note the typical length
scale of ~100µm, and
Intro the use of fibers for
Composite reinforcement. This
Applns. basic type of fiber-
reinforced composite is
Properties
strongly anisotropic.
Voigt, The toughness of such
SiC fibers in Ti3Al matrix
Reuss,
composites and the
Hill
need for limited
Anistrpy. adhesion between fiber
CTE and matrix is discussed
Cellular in the lecture on
Matls. Fracture.
Wood SiC fibers in a CAS ceramic matrix
Dowling: Mech. Behavior Materials
 14

Food!

From left to right, top

Intro to bottom:
Composite
a) Bread
Applns. b) Meringue
c) Chocolate bar
Properties
d) Chip
Voigt, e) Malteser (Candy)
Reuss, f) Jaffa cake (cookie,
Hill see below)
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood Jaffa: thetastingbuds.com

Gibson & Ashby: Cellular Solids

Maltesers image: commons.wikimedia.org/MaltesersOpen.jpg
 15

Food for Thought!

• How does ice cream represent a material in which
Intro the thermal-mechanical history is critical to its
Composite microstructure which, in turn, controls its
Applns. properties?
Properties
Voigt,
• Hint: this involves both the properties of
Reuss, composite materials (ice, cream, voids) and
Hill
particle coarsening (the ice).
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 16 Examinable

Examples of composites
• The classical example of a composite is concrete.
• It is more complex than it appears. There are typically coarse
Intro and fine particles (rocks!) embedded in a matrix of silicates and
sulfates. There is a high fraction of pores of all sizes. This is an
Composite
example of a particulate composite.
Applns.
• Ordinary concrete (properly made) has excellent compressive
Properties
strength but poor tensile strength. Thus reinforced concrete
Voigt, was invented to combine the tensile strength of steel with the
Reuss, compressive strength of concrete. This is an example of a
Hill
multiscale particulate and fiber reinforced composite. It is
Anistrpy. particulate because the aggregate (coarse gravel) reinforces the
CTE cement, and fiber because the steel rods reinforce the
Cellular concrete.
Matls. • A subtle but very important variant of reinforced concrete is
Wood pre-stressed concrete in which the reinforcing rods are placed in
tension before the concrete is allowed to set. See following
slides on residual stresses.
 17

Glass-ceramics
• Glass ceramics are useful materials that combine chemical
Intro inertness with thermal stability. They typically are
Composite stronger than amorphous glasses.
Applns. • This material class was invented (by the Sandia National
Properties Laboratories) for the specific purpose of making a
Voigt, material (insulator) that would have a good match for the
Reuss,
Hill
thermal expansion characteristics of metals (stainless
Anistrpy.
steel, nickel alloys), i.e. a relatively high CTE with values
intermediate between ceramics (typically low) and metals
CTE
(typically high).
Cellular
Matls. • Typical phase mixture includes lithium silicate(s),
Wood cristobalite and residual glass phase.
 18 Examinable

Property Ranges

A much wider range of

Intro properties is possible in
Composite composites than in
Applns.
monolithic materials. Foams
Properties
permit much smaller moduli
Voigt,
Reuss,
and densities than fully
Hill dense materials. The
Anistrpy. following chart illustrates a
CTE few basic properties.
Cellular
Matls.
Wood Gibson & Ashby:
Cellular Solids
 19 Examinable

Notation
A, B, C phases A and B, Composite
VA volume fraction of phase A
PA property of phase A
Intro EA (Young’s) modulus of phase A
Composite C (average) strain in composite
Applns. A stress in phase A
K bulk modulus
Properties
G shear modulus
Voigt, a coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)
Reuss,
rs, rcell cell wall density
Hill
r* relative density (cellular material)
Anistrpy. l length (of a beam)
CTE t thickness
Cellular b depth
Matls. d displacement
KIC fracture toughness [plane strain]
Wood
P load
x position (or location, in a material)
 20 Examinable

Simple Models: Rule of Mixtures

• What is the simplest model that can be used to predict a
material property in a composite?
Intro
Answer: Rule of Mixtures
Composite
Applns. • Define the volume fractions, V, of the various materials
Properties comprising the composite. The average property of the
Voigt, composite is then given by,
Reuss,
discrete: PC = VAPA + VBPB + … = S ViPi
Hill
continuum: PC = ∫ P(x)dV
Anistrpy.
CTE • The Rule of Mixtures is an acceptable first approximation
Cellular
for estimating composite material properties. It is,
Matls. however, often considerably in error and better methods
Wood are required.
 21 Examinable

Limits, bounds
• There are some circumstances under which one would
like to be able to make quantitative predictions of the
Intro
properties of a composite but an exact solution is not
Composite
Applns.
available.
Properties • Under these circumstances, it is still possible to set
Voigt, limits on the property. In a formal sense these limits are
Reuss, known as bounds because they are the result of analysis
Hill using the principles of solid mechanics. Such analysis
Anistrpy. can demonstrate that an either an upper or a lower (or
CTE both) bound exists for a given structure and loading.
Cellular • An upper bound means that the value of the property
Matls.
cannot go any higher than a certain value and vice versa
Wood
for a lower bound.
 22 Examinable

Exact versus bounds

• Exact solutions are usually available for simple
Intro geometries. Reinforced concrete with parallel rods is
Composite such an example.
Applns. • Complex geometries are almost always limited to
Properties approximate solutions and bounds provide the best
Voigt, estimate. Most particulate composites, especially those
Reuss,
Hill
with cracks fall in this category.
Anistrpy. • The most interesting properties for this lecture are
CTE those associated with mechanical behavior such as
Cellular stiffness, strength, thermal expansion.
Matls. • In the most general sense, we are seeking methods for
Wood averaging a property over the heterogeneous elements
of the microstructure.
 23 Examinable

Isostress, isostrain

• “Iso-” is a prefix meaning “same”. Isostress is an

Intro assumption that the phases experience the
Composite same stress. By contrast, isostrain makes the
Applns.
Properties
assumption that the phases are subject to the
Voigt, same strain.
Reuss,
Hill
• Each assumption leads to very different results,
Anistrpy. especially when the properties of each phase
CTE are divergent, as we see from the example of
Cellular the brick and the foam.
Matls.
Wood
 24 Examinable

Isostrain
• Imagine parallel slabs of material
between platens that apply a
Intro load.
Composite • Phase A has volume fraction VA
Applns. and modulus EA; Phase B has
Properties volume fraction VB and modulus Phase A
EB. Phase B
Voigt,
Reuss, • Composite modulus, EC?
Hill
• We assume isostrain because
Anistrpy.
each phase sees the same
CTE change in length.
Cellular • The strain, = C, is therefore the
Matls.
field; the stress is the response
Wood (and the stiffness is the
property).
 25 Examinable

Isostrain: 2
• Each phase gives a different stress:
A=EA C; B=EB C.
• We average the stresses over the
Intro
composite in proportion to the volume
Composite
Applns. fraction of the phase:
Properties C=VAA+ VBB = VAEA C + VBEB C.
Phase A
Voigt, • The modulus is the ratio of the stress to
Phase B
Reuss, the strain in the composite:
Hill EC = C/ C = VAEA + VBEB
Anistrpy. • This modulus is thus the arithmetic mean
CTE of the moduli of each phase, weighted by
the volume fractions. In effect, the rule of
Cellular
mixtures has been applied to the
Matls.
stiffnesses.
Wood
• Exercise: prove to yourself that this can be
extended to any number of phases.
 26 Examinable

Isostress
• Imagine parallel slabs of material
between platens that apply a
load.
Intro • Phase A has volume fraction VA
Composite and modulus EA; Phase B has Phase A
Applns. volume fraction VB and modulus
Properties EB.
Voigt, • Composite modulus, EC? Phase B
Reuss,
Hill • We assume isostress because
each phase sees the same stress
Anistrpy.
(assuming same cross-sectional
CTE area).
Cellular
Matls.
• The stress,  = C, is therefore
the field; the strain is the
Wood
response (and the compliance is
the property).
 27 Examinable

Isostress: 2
• Each phase gives a different strain:
A= C/EA; B= C/EB.
• We average the strains over the
Intro composite in proportion to the volume
Composite fraction of the phase:
Applns. C=VAA+ VB B = VAC/EA + VBC/EB.
Phase A
Properties • The modulus of the composite is the ratio
Voigt, of the stress to the strain in the
Reuss, composite as before, except that it is Phase B
Hill easier to work with inverse moduli, i.e.
Anistrpy. compliances:
CTE 1/EC = C/C = VA/EA + VB/EB
Cellular • The composite modulus is thus the
Matls. harmonic mean of the moduli of each
Wood phase, weighted by the volume fractions.
In effect, the rule of mixtures has been
applied to the compliances.
 28 Examinable
Example of Cu-W
Composites
• The graphs show (a) examples of the
difference in the calculated modulus
Intro based on the 2 different assumptions
[parallel is equivalent to isostrain, and
Composite series to isostress]; (b) an example of the
Applns. measured difference in modulus of Cu-W
composites, contrasting wire [=fiber] with
Properties particle reinforcement. The fiber
composite corresponds very closely to the
Voigt, isostrain estimate; the particulate
Reuss, composite is close to the isostress,
Hill although not quite so precisely.
• Note how the isostress and isostrain
Anistrpy. estimates are similar when the moduli
differ by only a factor of two. When the
CTE moduli differ by an order of magnitude,
Cellular however, the two estimates differ widely.
• Here, isostrain happens to be the same as
Matls. the Rule of Mixtures.
Wood

“Structural Materials”, Weidemann, Lewis and Reid

 29 Examinable

Voigt, Reuss, Hill

• These simple estimates of modulus have names associated with
them.
• The isostress approach is known as the Reuss modulus.
Intro
• The isostrain approach is known as the Voigt modulus.
Composite
Applns. • Hill proposed that a reasonable average of the two would be
appropriate in materials where the loading is intermediate between
Properties
the two extreme cases. Hence the average of the Isotress and
Voigt, Isostrain values is known as the Hill Average Modulus.
Reuss,
• We can also treat the composite property (for elastic modulus) in
Hill
terms of an arithmetic mean (isostrain) versus a harmonic mean
Anistrpy. (isostress), which is the reciprocal of the average of the reciprocal
CTE values.
Cellular • Are there better estimates? Yes, look in the Supplemental slides for a
Matls. description of the Hashin-Shtrikman estimates of modulus. There are
Wood also textbooks by Mura, Nemat-Nasser, Milton and several others.
 30 Examinable

Homework Questions
• No worked example is provided here on the iso-strain and iso-stress
models.
Intro • Examples were quoted of theoretical combinations of materials and
Composite for Cu-W.
Applns. • Homework/exam questions are likely to ask you to calculate modulus
Properties values at different volume fractions (of two phases), to plot the
Voigt, results (linear or log scale) and to compare against experimental data.
Reuss, • You may be asked to rationalize deviations of measured modulus
Hill values from calculated ones by considering microstructure. For
Anistrpy. example, if a particulate composite (with stiff particles in a compliant
CTE
matrix, e.g. SiC in Al) has higher modulus than you compute from the
iso-stress model, then this may be because the particles are not
Cellular perfectly dispersed and they form networks through inter-particle
Matls.
contacts.
Wood
 31 Examinable

Summary: Part 1
• Composites are man-made mixtures of phases, often with
different material types, e.g. glass (ceramic) as a stiffening
Intro
reinforcement in epoxy (polymer).
Composite
Applns. • The simplest way to estimate properties is to use the Rule
Properties of Mixtures. Such simple volume averaging is also valid
Voigt, for field quantities such as stress or strain, depending on
Reuss, boundary conditions.
Hill
• The next simplest approach to computing the properties
Anistrpy.
of a composite is to look for upper and lower bounds. For
CTE
the example of elastic modulus, the iso-strain and iso-
Cellular stress models were developed. The iso-strain model
Matls.
happens to give the same result as the Rule of Mixtures
Wood
but has a physical basis.
 32 Examinable

Part 2
• In this Part, we consider the properties of wood.
Intro • Wood is a multiscale composite material, in the
Composite sense that it is self-evidently a cellular material
Applns.
but the cell walls are themselves composite
Properties
Voigt,
structures.
Reuss, • Wood is a natural example of a cellular material.
Hill
Anistrpy. • We also examine the anisotropy of composite
CTE materials, partly as a way of tying together what
Cellular we learned about anisotropy with what we learn
Matls.
about composite structures.
Wood
 33
Questions & Answers for Part 2
1. What makes wood a multiscale composite material? Wood is
a multiscale composite material because there is identifiable
structure at the scale of filaments, microfibrils, cell wall
layers and cell organization (“grain”).
2. What are the main chemical components of wood? Wood
Intro contains mostly cellulose (in various forms) and lignin.
Composite 3. What distinguishes wood from other plants? The main
difference between wood and other plants is that its cell
Applns. walls contain lignin, which makes it stronger and more
resistant to pests.
Properties 4. What is the macrostructure of wood? Wood contains highly
elongated cells, that define the “grain” of wood. Cells are
Voigt, deposited on a nearly continuous basis but their diameter
Reuss, varies during the year with larger diameter cells during times
of rapid growth. There are also radial structures known as
Hill “rays”.
5. What is the structure of the cell walls? There are several
Anistrpy. layers. There is a Primary outer layer (P), outside of which
there is a “middle lamella” that contains most of the lignin.
CTE Inside the P layer, there are the S1, S2 & S3 layers, with
different layups of the microfibrils.
Cellular 6. What are “rings” in wood? As noted above, the cell size
Matls. varies on an annual basis which means that a cross-section
through a trunk reveals what look like rings in the structure;
Wood each ring corresponds to one year, which permits the age of
a tree to be estimated with good reliability. The variations in
cell size also reveal changes in local climate.
7. What microstructural characteristic correlates most
strongly with the mechanical properties of wood?
Properties such as modulus, strength and fracture
toughness correlate most strongly with density.
8. How does elastic modulus depend on density in wood?
The elastic modulus varies either in proportion to
density for the axial/longitudinal direction or with the
density squared across the grain (radial or
circumferential).
9. Explain the structure and components of micro-fibrils.
Each microfibril is a bundle of cellulose fibers in a
matrix of hemicellulose and lignin.
10.Explain the structure of cell walls in wood. See the
notes; Several layers are present in the cell wall, each
with its own characteristic lay-up angle of the micro-
fibrils. In particular, the angle between the microfibrils
and the axial direction in the S2 layer is strongly anti-
correlated with stiffness.
11.Describe the anisotropy of the mechanical properties
of wood. Wood is much stiffer, stronger and tough
parallel to the grain than across the grain.
12.Based on the chemistry of wood, comment on its
sensitivity to moisture. Certain components of the
wood (esp. cellulose) are hydrophilic and absorb water.
Increased moisture content increases stiffness and
strength.
13.Why does the modulus vary faster than linear across
the grain? Crucially, wood is a cellular material and
deforms primarily via bending of the cell walls.
 34 Examinable

Wood: Macro-structure

Intro
Composite
Applns.
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
• Note the variation in cell size during the year from Earlywood (spring-
Anistrpy.
summer) to Latewood (summer-autumn). This variation in cell size
CTE produces the characteristic “rings” that indicate the age of the wood
Cellular because of the yearly cycle in cell size (and the magnitudes of the cell
Matls. sizes correlate with climatic conditions). The “Rays” are aligned with
Wood the radial direction. The long direction of the cells is the axial or
longitudinal direction. Follow a ring around the trunk and this is the
circumferential or tangential direction.
 35 Examinable

Wood: Microstructure
T-R
• Columbian
Intro pine -
Composite 3 orthogonal
Applns. sections
Properties
Voigt,
• T: transverse
T-L R-L
Reuss, R: radial
Hill
L: longitudinal
Anistrpy.
(vertical in both
CTE
Cellular
images)
Matls.
Wood
 36 Examinable
E
Wood: multiscale
It is important to understand wood
as a cellular, composite structure.
It is one, however, that has several F
different length scales from that of
Intro the cellulose molecule to the
macrostructure of lumber as we
Composite accustomed to looking at it at the
Applns. visual scale. The figure illustrates
the hierarchy of length scales from
Properties the atomic structure of cellulose
(A) to the structure of a tree trunk
Voigt, (E). The basic building block of
Reuss, wood is the polymer of glucose
known as cellulose, which occurs
C
Hill as a (mostly) crystalline fiber. The

Anistrpy.
other critical component of wood
is lignin, which is a complex,
D
amorphous material containing
CTE phenyl groups. Lignin sets wood
apart from other plants; its
Cellular occurrence in the outer and inner
Matls. linings of the cell walls is critical for
both structural properties and for
Wood wood’s (relative) insensitivity to
environment.
A B
 37 Examinable

Wood: cell structure

• Each cell wall contains microfibrils, each of which is a bundle of
cellulose fibers in a matrix of hemicellulose and lignin. Therefore it is
a fiber-reinforced composite! The P layer is 5 % of the thickness with
Intro random fiber directions; the S1 layer is 9 % with fibers at 50-70° w.r.t.
the axis; the S2 layer is 85 %, fibers at 10-30°; the S3 layer is 1 %, with
Composite
fibers at 90° to the axis. Note the dependence of the tensile strength
Applns.
on the microfibril angle in the Outer Wall, labeled “S1”. Each cell is a
Properties long tube, some of which are used for transporting water (but not all).
Voigt,
Reuss, C
Hill
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 38 Examinable

Wood: Microfibril structure

• The filaments or fibers of cellulose, (C6H10O5)n, where n~104, are
organized in bundles (together with lignin surrounding the fibers)
Intro called microfibrils whose size is about 10 nm. Each set of microfibrils
forms a bundle that is itself a structural member of the wall of a cell
Composite (next slide).
Applns.
• Soft woods have longer cellulose fibers than hardwoods (which
Properties matters to the manufacture of paper).
Voigt, B
Reuss, A
Hill
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 39

Wood: Constituents: Cellulose

• Cellulose: a high molecular weight, stereoregular, and linear polymer
of repeating beta-D-glucopyranose units. It is the main structural
Intro element and major constituent of the cell wall of trees and plants.
Composite The empirical formula for cellulose is (C6H10O5)n where 'n' is degree of
Applns. polymerization (DP).
Properties [http://www.paperonweb.com/wood.htm]
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 40 Examinabl

Cellular Materials: Young’s Modulus e

• Taking wood as an example, it is

found empirically that the moduli
vary with (relative) density
Intro
anisotropically.
Composite
Applns.
r
Properties E axial µ E cell
r cell
Voigt,
Reuss, æ r ö 2
Hill E transverse µ E cell ç ÷
Anistrpy. è rcell ø
CTE • Note the discrepancy between the
Cellular empirical equation and the slope
Matls. in the plot. The theoretical
Wood prediction goes as (rrcell)3.
[Gibson & Ashby: Cellular Materials]
 41

Wood: Young’s Modulus

r
E axial µ E cell (1)
• To understand what
controls the elastic modulus
r cell
Intro (Young’s modulus) of wood, æ r ö2
Composite we have to consider E transverse µ E cell ç ÷ (2)
Applns. bending of the cell walls in è rcell ø
Properties the microstructure.
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
• The first equation
Anistrpy. quantifies the idea that the
CTE tensile modulus of wood
Cellular parallel to the grain is just
Matls. the volume average of the
area fraction occupied by
Wood
cell wall.
 42

Wood: Modulus, contd.

• The second equation (modulus transverse to the
Intro
grain) is more subtle and states that the elastic
Composite
modulus varies more rapidly - with the square of the
Applns. density - than the axial modulus. The reason for this
Properties can be understood very simply in terms of the
Voigt, cellular structure. When wood is loaded across the
Reuss, grain, the cell walls bend like miniature beams. This
Hill response can be quantified by use of beam theory to
Anistrpy. arrive at the functional dependence of equation 2.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 43

Summary: Part 2A
• Wood can be understood as a composite material or,
more usefully, as a cellular material.
Intro
• Wood is a multi-scale composite material.
Composite • The cell walls of wood are themselves composite
Applns. structures.
Properties • Even the fibers in the cell walls are also composites.
Voigt,
• The elastic properties of wood are highly anisotropic:
Reuss,
Hill wood is stiffer in the axial direction and more compliant
Anistrpy. in the transverse direction.
CTE • The variation in modulus with relative density is linear in
Cellular the axial direction but varies as the square of the relative
Matls. density in the transverse direction.
Wood • In part 2B, we introduce beam bending theory to
quantify these effects.
 44

2B: Introduction to beam theory

• Consider a 3-point beam with length, l: supported at either end and loaded in
the center with a force, F. The most important point is that there is a neutral
point in the beam, n, at which the stress is zero; above this it is compressive,
and below it is tensile. The stress is proportional to distance from the neutral
Intro plane.
Composite Moment of Inertia, I : w
Applns. I=ò y= 0
y= t wt 3
y 2 dA =
12
Properties dmax Moment on the beam, M : t
ò
y= t
M= s y dA
Voigt, y= 0

Stress varies linearly with strain :

Reuss, s Ee E(y /R) E
= = =
Hill y y y R
This shows that stress varies linearly with y
Anistrpy. so s/y is a constant :
M =s y òy 2 dA = s y I
y= t
CTE y= 0

Thus this double equality is true :

Cellular M s E
= =
Matls. I y R
For a force, F, at the center of the beam
Wood the maximum deflection, d max is :
l 2 l 2 M l 2 Fl /4 l 3F 3Fl 3
dmax = = = = =
8R 8EI 8EI 32EI 8Ewt 3 [Dowling]
 45

Beam theory applied to wood

• The mechanical behavior can be modeled by a framework of beams.
The deflection, d, of a beam of length l and thickness t, under a load
Intro F, is given by standard beam theory (see previous slide) as
Composite d = F l3/ 32EcellI,
Applns.
Properties where Ecell is the Young’s modulus of the beam material (i.e. the cell
wall) and I is the bending moment which is proportional to t4 (recall
Voigt,
that I = wt3/12 , so for w=t, I = t4/12). The force is stress, ,
Reuss,
Hill multiplied by area, = l2, i.e.
Anistrpy.
F =  l2.
CTE
Cellular The strain, , is the displacement, d, divided by the cell length,
Matls.
 = d / l = F l3/ 32 l EcellI = F l2 / 32 EcellI.
Wood
 46

Wood: modulus, contd.

• Thus we can obtain Eq. 2 as the ratio of stress to strain.
Intro
Composite E transverse = s e
Applns.
Properties = s
Voigt, ( 32E cell Il)
Fl 3

Reuss,
Hill = s
Anistrpy. ( l 32E cell Il)
s l 2 3

( l)
CTE
Cellular = 32E cell I 4
Matls. for w=t, I = t4/12
( )
4
Wood
E transverse = 8 3 E cell t l
 47

Wood: modulus, contd.

• But we also relate the density to the cell dimensions by
writing r  (t/l)2 and obtain Eq. 2 (where the proportionality
Intro constant, C”~1, based on experimental data),
Composite
Applns. Etransverse = C” Ecell r2.
Properties
• Note that this derivation is a general one for open-celled
Voigt,
Reuss,
foams and happens to be a simple, easy-to-understand
Hill approach. Woods have more complex structures than the
open cell model which helps to explain the scatter in the data.
Anistrpy.
• Note that the theory for closed-celled foams (see
CTE
supplemental slides), which is closer to the actual structure of
Cellular wood, shows a dependence on (rrcell)3, not (rrcell)2 as
Matls. derived here.
Wood
 48

Wood: strength r
s axial µ s cell
r cell
æ r ö2
s transverse µ s cell ç ÷
Intro
è r cell ø
Composite
Applns. • Here, the story is very similar to that of modulus. The axial
Properties modulus is determined by the area fraction of cell wall material,
Voigt, hence the linear dependence on density. The transverse strength,
Reuss, however, is limited by bending and plastic hinge behavior of the
Hill cellular structure, hence the quadratic dependence on density.
Anistrpy. The difference between axial and transverse properties is so great
for both modulus and most other mechanical properties that it is
CTE
always necessary to be aware of the anisotropy of wood, i.e. that
Cellular the properties vary markedly with direction. More succinctly,
Matls. wood is much stronger and stiffer along the grain than across the
Wood grain. The lower the density, the more obvious the difference.
 49
Wood: fracture
toughness More detailed
figure available
in Gibson &
Ashby, fig.
10.17
Intro
KIC:axial  KICcell (rrcell)3/2
Composite
Applns. KICtransverse  KICcell (rrcell)3/2
Properties KICtransverse » KIC:axial
Voigt,
Reuss, • For fracture toughness, the result is given without proof that the cellular
Hill structure leads to a 3/2 exponent in the density dependence, regardless of
direction. The crucial point is that propagating a crack parallel to the grain
Anistrpy. is much easier than transverse, by a factor of ~ 10! More than one
CTE microstructural feature contributes to the high transverse toughness,
including fiber pull-out, propagation of secondary cracks perpendicular to
Cellular
the primary crack, and elongation of the polymer chains in the cell walls.
Matls.
Again, there are many different directions and planes for crack
Wood propagation in this anisotropic material which further increases the
variability of the toughness.
 50

Wood: moisture content

• Water is found in wood both in chemically bound
Intro
form, and stored in vessels (“lumin”).
Composite • The bound form of water strongly affects
Applns. properties of all kinds.
Properties • The free water has only a minor effect.
Voigt,
Reuss, • The “fiber saturation point” is the water content
Hill that corresponds to saturation of the bound
Anistrpy. water. The FSP is about 28 % of the fully dry
CTE wood.
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 51

Bone
• Similar strong
sensitivity of
properties to
Intro
moisture content
Composite as observed for
Applns. wood.
Properties • Dependence of
Voigt, modulus on
Reuss, density is less clear
Hill even than for
Anistrpy. wood.
CTE • Compressive
Cellular strength varies as
Matls. the square of the
density
Wood
Note: bone varies considerably in structure, depending on the local
loading that the body puts on it.
 52

Future Composites
• Carbon nanotube composites: currently based on polymer-nanotube materials, but
combinations of nanotubes with ceramics are being fabricated.
• (a) Nanotube types (b) TEM micrograph of nanotubes (note fringes in the walls
indicating multiple walls); (c) TEM image of multiwalled nanotube (MWNT)-polystyrene
Intro thin film composite.
Composite
Applns.
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
“Carbon nanotube composites”, PJ.F. Harris, Intl. Matls. Reviews, 49, 31 (2004)
 53

Impact Protection for Space Vehicles

• http://hitf.jsc.nasa.gov/hitfpub/main/index.html
Intro • http://see.msfc.nasa.gov/mod/modtech.htm -
Composite shield design.
Applns.
Properties • http://oea.larc.nasa.gov/PAIS/MISSE.html -
Voigt, materials testing.
Reuss,
Hill • http://www.nasa.gov/lb/missions/science/spinoff
Anistrpy. 9_nextel_f.html use of Nextel as a shield
CTE material.
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 54

Summary: Part 2B
• Wood can be understood as a composite material or,
more usefully, as a cellular material.
Intro
Composite
• Wood is a multi-scale composite material.
Applns. • The cell walls of wood are themselves composite
Properties structures.
Voigt, • Even the fibers in the cell walls are also composites.
Reuss,
Hill • We can estimate their properties based on the
Anistrpy. application of beam bending theory to the way in the cell
CTE walls deform under load.
Cellular • Bone has properties that resemble wood in some
Matls. respects i.e. a similar dependence of modulus on
Wood density.
 55 Examinable

Part 3
• In this Part, we consider the basic characteristics
Intro of fibers for fiber composites.
Composite • We examine how to engineer composite
Applns.
properties by exploiting residual stress.
Properties
Voigt, • We also examine the anisotropy of the properties
Reuss, of composite properties, which builds on what we
Hill
Anistrpy.
learned about tensor properties.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 56 Examinable

Fiber Composites
• An important class of composites is that of fiber composites.
• The materials involved may be metal, ceramic or polymer. Glass-fiber composite is
typical in low-cost structures such as boat hulls. Carbon-fiber composites are used in
higher performance structures such as airplanes where their higher cost is justified by
Intro
the requirements. Ceramic composites are used typically for high temperature
Composite service, such as heat exchangers.
Applns. • The basic idea is to take advantage of high strength and stiffness of the fibers and to
obtain damage tolerance (and specific shapes) by embedding them in a suitable
Properties
matrix. More specifically, the fiber material (e.g. graphite, glass) is a material that
Voigt, would not generally be considered to be a structural material.
Reuss, • Solid mechanics of fiber composites: the key to understanding the mechanical
Hill properties of fiber composites (for fibers whose length is short compared to the size of
the component) is load transfer between the matrix and the fibers. This means that
Anistrpy. the stress on each fiber varies along its length. Also, the composite materials are
CTE strongly anisotropic (so tensors are useful again). See discussion in the supplemental
slides.
Cellular • Modern developments: carbon nanotubes offer exceptional stiffness and strength, not
Matls. to mention interesting electrical properties in some cases. If we can figure out how to
Wood separate out the various different conformations and how to align the nanotubes,
there should be a wide range of exciting materials possible.
 57 Examinable

Fibers for Polymer Matrix Composites

• Many types of fibers are available: carbon,
Intro glass, aramid, quartz, polyethylene, boron,
Composite silicon carbide, alumina, aluminosilicate.
Applns.
Properties • The polymer matrix
Voigt, composite business is
Reuss, dominated by volume by
Hill
carbon, glass and
Anistrpy.
aramid fibers because
CTE
they offer the best
Cellular performance:price ratio.
Matls.
Wood

“Mechanics of Fibrous Composites”, C.T. Herakovich

 58

Carbon Fibers
• Modulus ranges from 200-750 GPa
(compare with steel: 210 GPa)
Intro
Composite
• Strength ranges from 2-6 GPa
Applns. • Breaking strain ranges from 0.2 - 2 %
Properties • Density ranges from 1.76- 2.15
Voigt,
Reuss,
• Highest cost compared to glass or aramid, but greatest
Hill range of properties.
Anistrpy. • Internal structure consists of radially-aligned graphite
CTE platelets, which leads to some anisotropy in properties in
Cellular the fibers. Both thermal and electrical conductivity are
Matls. generally good (but then insulation required where metals
Wood might be in contact for carbon-fiber composite).
 59

Glass Fibers
• Glass fibers produced by spinning liquid glass directly to
fine fibers. Just as in the Griffith experiments, the
Intro
strength is based on small diameter.
Composite
Applns. • Modulus ranges from 70- 90 GPa.
Properties • Strength ranges from 1.7-5 GPa
Voigt, • Breaking strain from 2 to 5%
Reuss,
Hill • Density ~ 2.5 gm/cc.
Anistrpy. • “E glass” [electrical, borosilicate glass] is the cheapest and
CTE most common. “R glass” and “S glass” is more expensive
Cellular but more corrosion resistant, for example and higher
Matls. strength.
Wood
 60

Aramid Fibers
• Aramid fibers are produced by drawing liquid crystal polymers
based on, e.g. polyparabenzamide or polyparaphenylene
Intro terephthalamide.
Composite • Polymer chains arranged in radially oriented, kinked sheets.
Applns. Bonding between the molecules is largely hydrogen bonding so the
Properties transverse properties are weak compared to on-axis. Therefore
difficult to propagate a crack along a fiber.
Voigt,
Reuss, • Modulus ranges from 55-120 GPa
Hill • Strength ranges from 3 to 3.6 GPa
Anistrpy. • Breaking strain ranges from 2.5 to 4%
CTE • Density ~ 1.45 gm/cc.
Cellular • Aramid fibers vulnerable to environmental degradation (sunlight).
Matls.
Wood
 61 Examinable

Residual Stresses and Composites

• In a stationary body that is free of external loads, the average stress (and moment) must be zero
because (Newton’s Laws) there must be no net force on it.
• The stress state inside the body, however, can vary arbitrarily. Such variable internal stresses are
Intro often know as residual stresses because they are the left-over from previous processing.
• The simplicity of elastic stresses is that they can be superimposed. Therefore one can assume in
Composite beam loading that the stresses imposed by external loading can be added to the internal variations.
Applns. • As with all phenomena, there are engineering applications. Reinforced concrete, for example, is a
fiber-reinforced composite with a brittle matrix (concrete) and a ductile fiber reinforcement (steel
Properties bars or cable). The steel is typically held in tension during the setting-up of the concrete, resulting in
a composite for which the steel is in a state of tension and the concrete is in compression.
Voigt,
• For fiber-reinforced materials, for example, a difference in thermal expansion coefficient can produce
Reuss, a residual stress state in a composite. For example, if the fiber has a smaller CTE and the composite is
Hill cooled from a zero stress state at high temperature, then the matrix shrinks more than the reinforcing
fibers, putting the matrix in tension and the fibers in compression.
Anistrpy. • Safety Glass as commonly used for the windshields of cars rely on residual stress developed through
heat treatment. A compressive residual stress near the surface(s) is balanced by a tensile residual
CTE
stress in the center. Furthermore, the heat treatment is done in such a fashion as to develop a fine
Cellular pattern so that, if the windshield does break, it shatters into many small but compact pieces that are
far less hazardous than the typical shards of window glass.
Matls.
Wood
 62 Examinable

Reinforced Concrete
• Steps required:
1. Stretch reinforcing steel cables (i.e. place them in tension)
2. Pour concrete around the cables; allow concrete to set
Intro
3. Remove tensioning force from steel cables
Composite 4. The steel cables contract elastically but the concrete matrix resists the
Applns. contraction
5. Steel remains in tension (did not shrink back to zero strain) whereas the
Properties concrete is in compression to balance the tensile stress in the steel cables
Voigt, • Question: is there an optimum location for the reinforcement within the
Reuss, beam? At the top? Bottom?
Hill • Loading of Reinforced Concrete Beams:
– As the beam is loaded (e.g. 3-point bending), the concrete underneath the
Anistrpy. loading point experiences the sum of its residual compressive stress, plus the
CTE tensile stress from the bending load. For moderate loads, the stress remains
compressive, protecting against brittle failure.
Cellular • The composite is highly anisotropic, of course.
Matls. • Famous example (local to Pittsburgh): the cantilevered terraces of Frank
Wood Lloyd Wright’s house, Fallingwater (image above).
• http://structsource.com/analysis/types/concrete.htm
 63 Examinable

Pre-stressed Reinforced Concrete

Remember: in the absence of external loads
(tractions) the net stress in the material must be
0= ò s dV
zero. Volume
Intro
Composite
Applns.
Steel rod: large tensile stress from external load
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
Anistrpy.
Add concrete, allow to set, no stress in concrete
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
Remove external load on steel; compressive stress in concrete
increases to balance the decreased tensile stress in the steel
 64 Examinable

Homework Questions
• A worked example is very simple in this case.
• If the fracture toughness, KIC, of concrete is measured to be 2 MPa√m, and
Intro the maximum flaw size is 5 mm (based on the aggregate sizes), what is the
maximum tensile stress that it can withstand? Answer: apply the Griffith Eq.
Composite
with the maximum flaw size as the crack size (since this represents the weak
Applns.
link in the material), which suggests that the breaking stress = √{KIc/πc} =
Properties √{2.106 / π / 5.10-3} = 11.28 kPa, which is very small indeed.
Voigt, • If the volume fraction of reinforcing steel in concrete is limited to 10%, its
Reuss, yield stress is 1.5 GPa and you can stress the steel to 80% of its yield
Hill (representing the safety factor), what approximate tensile strength can you
develop in the concrete via pre-stressing? Answer: assume that you can
Anistrpy.
neglect the inherent tensile strength. Assume that you can apply 1500 * 0.8
CTE MPa tensile stress in the steel, which is balanced by 1500*0.8*0.1/0.9 = 133
Cellular MPa compressive stress in the concrete. This residual compressive stress in
Matls. the concrete represents the maximum tensile stress that you can apply
before you expect the concrete to break.
Wood
 65 Examinable
Anisotropy of Cell Wall

De Graef
Intro
HW 4
Composite
2009
Applns. (adapted)
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 66 Examinable

Cell Wall: Young’s Modulus: Anisotropy

• The first decision is which model to use.
Intro • In this context it means, do we use iso-strain or
Composite iso-stress?
Applns.
Properties • Since we are looking at loading the material in the
Voigt, plane of the layers, then it is appropriate to use
Reuss, the iso-strain model.
Hill
Anistrpy. • This means that we can use the rule of mixtures
CTE for the 3 phases that contribute to the Young’s
Cellular modulus:
Matls.
C= V11 + V22 + V33 = V1E!C + V2E2C + V3E3C.
Wood
• The next step is to compute the moduli.
 67 Examinable

S in terms of C
In order to compute Young’s modulus, we need to use the
reciprocal compliances.
Intro The relationships for s (compliance) in terms of c (stiffness)
Composite are symmetrical to those for stiffnesses in terms of
Applns.
compliances (a simple exercise in algebra!).
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
s11 = (c11+c12)/{(c11-c12)(c11+2c12)}
Hill = (16+11)/{(16-11)(16+22)}
Anistrpy. = 0.1421
CTE s12 = -c12/{(c11-c12)(c11+2c12)}
Cellular = -11/{(16-11)(16+22)}
Matls.
= -0.05789
Wood s44 = 1/c44
= 1/1 = 1.
 68 Examinable

Rotated compliance (matrix)

• The standard relationship is as follows:
Intro s1¢ 1 = s1 1 -

( ){ }
Composite
Applns. 2 s1 1 - s1 2 - 1 s4 4 a12 a 22 + a 22 a 23 + a 32a 12
Properties 2
Voigt,
Reuss, • Now we just need to specify the direction cosines, of
Hill which only the 1st term, (a1a2)2, is non-zero. For the S3
Anistrpy. layer, it is easy because the value is zero, so only s11 is
CTE used! For S2 (a1a2)2 = cos2(20) cos2(70) = 0.1033; for S1
Cellular the (a1a2)2 = cos2(60) cos2(30) = 0.1875. The combination
Matls.
of compliances = 2*(0.1421+0.05789-0.5)= -0.3001.
Wood
 69 Examinable

Compliance values; Young’s Modulus

• s11 for S1: 0.1421
Intro • s11 for S2: 0.1421 + 0.1033*-0.3001 = 0.1111
Composite
Applns.
• s11 for S3: 0.1421 + 0.1875*-0.3001 = 0.08583
Properties • Make the volume-based average:
Voigt, • 1/Ecell = 0.1*0.1421 + 0.8*0.1111 + 0.1*0.08585 =
Reuss,
Hill 0.111675
Anistrpy. • Ecell = 1 / 0.111675 = 8.954
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 70

Cell Wall: Young’s Modulus: Anisotropy

• What if the fibers have, say tetragonal symmetry,
Intro as is more likely than cubic? Then the stiffness
Composite tensor will take the following form.
Applns.
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
Anistrpy.
• Here the challenge is to invert the properties of a
CTE
Cellular
tetragonal material so that we ought to use
Matls. compliances rather than stiffnesses.
Wood
 71

Tetragonal Fibers
• Let’s further assume that the 4-fold symmetry axis is
Intro
parallel to the long direction of the fibers.
Composite • Inverting the compliance-stiffness relation, however, is
Applns. non-trivial for non-cubics. This is found in Nye or
Properties Newnham. The relationships are written out for c in
Voigt, terms of s, but they are symmetrical so s can be
Reuss, substituted for c, and vice versa.
Hill
Anistrpy.
• c11+ c12= s33 / s ; c11- c12=1/(s11- s12); c13 = -s13/s33
CTE
c33 = (s11 + s12) /s ; c44 = 1 / s44 ;
s = s33 (s11 + s12) - 2s213 .
Cellular
Matls. • Next we need to find the formulae for the variation in s11
Wood with direction.
 72

Tetragonal Fibers, contd.

• Again, as found in Nye:

11 ( 1 2) ( 12 44 ) 1 a 2
Intro
Composite ¢
s11 = s a 4
+ a 4
+ s a
33 3
4
+ s + s a 2 2

Applns.
Properties
Voigt,
+a (1 - a
2
2
2
3 )( s
13 {
+ s44 ) + 2s16 a1 a 2 (a - a
2
1
2
2 )}
Reuss,
Hill
• The computation is then similar but longer and
Anistrpy. more detailed.
CTE • What emerges is the conclusion that the cell wall
Cellular can be stiffer, or more compliant, than is possible
Matls.
Wood
by aligning the fibers in only one direction.
 73 Examinable

Summary: Part 3
• In this part, we learned about the properties of
Intro fiber-reinforced composites.
Composite • We also learned about how important the
Applns.
anisotropy of composites often is, and how to
Properties
Voigt,
represent that anisotropy in terms of tensor
Reuss, properties of materials. Further information on
Hill
anisotropy of composites can be found in the
Anistrpy.
supplemental slides.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 74 Examinable

Part 4
• In this Part, we consider the basic characteristics
Intro of cellular materials.
Composite • We examine the problem of shock absorbing
Applns.
materials as an example of the application of
Properties
Voigt,
composite properties for foams (cellular
Reuss, materials).
Hill
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 75 Examinable

Cellular Materials
• This next section provides some basic information on cellular
Intro materials.
Composite • Why study cellular materials? Answer: cellular materials provide
Applns. a range of properties that are not achievable in bulk materials.
Especially when load carrying capacity at very low densities is
Properties
required, only cellular materials can satisfy the requirements.
Voigt, Shock resistance is also a vital characteristic of cellular materials.
Reuss,
Hill • Cellular structures are feasible (and used for engineering
applications) with all materials types. Metal honeycombs are
Anistrpy.
used in transport applications. Ceramic foams are used in
CTE insulation. Cellular structures are ubiquitous in biomaterials
Cellular (wood, bone, shells…).
Matls.
Wood
 76 Examinable
Honeycombs:
properties
• Note the contrast
between tension and
Intro
compression (plateau
Composite present), 4.2a vs. 4.2b.
Applns.
• Even brittle wall materials
Properties exhibit progressive failure
Voigt, in compression, 4.2e.
Reuss, • The stress-strain curves
Hill
are labeled by their
Anistrpy. characteristic stages.
CTE • Very important
Cellular consequences for energy
Matls. absorbing structures (see
Wood later slides)

[Gibson & Ashby: Cellular Materials]

 77 Examinable

Energy Absorption
• Why are foams useful?! One reason is their
Intro capacity to absorb energy.
Composite
Applns.
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood [Gibson]
 78 Examinable

Energy Absorption: 2
• How do these two graphs connect? Each line on the 2nd graph correspond to
a locus of points from the 1st graph, for a particular relative density. Note the
turn-over in the curve of energy versus stress: this is the most efficient use of
Intro the material.
Composite
Applns.
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood [Gibson]
 79 Examinable

Energy Absorption: 3
During wall buckling, densification proceeds at a approximately
constant external stress.

Fully Densified
Intro
[Gibson]
Composite
Applns. Wall Buckling
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
Anistrpy. Elastic
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
Note that, once the foam starts to densify (steep upturn in the stress-
strain curve) then the stress rises with little increase in energy absorbed.
 80 Examinable

Energy Absorption: 4
• As seen before, the stress-
strain (8.4a) can be re-plotted
Intro as energy absorbed versus
stress (8.4b). Varying the
Composite density varies the maximum
Applns. energy that can be absorbed
Properties at the plateau stress.
Voigt, • We can draw an envelope
Reuss, through the points of
Hill maximum energy ÷ plateau
stress.
Anistrpy.
• Variations in other parameters
CTE such as strain rate can also be
Cellular shown on such an energy-
Matls. stress diagram by plotting only
these envelopes.
Wood

[Gibson]
 81 Examinable

Shock Cushions
• Once one knows the energy-stress characteristic of a material, it is
possible to calculate the optimum thickness.
Intro
• Given the kinetic energy to be absorbed, U, and the area of contact
Composite
between object and foam, A, the thickness, t, is given by
Applns.
Properties t=U/WA (Eq. 1)
Voigt,
Reuss, where W is the energy absorbed per unit volume in the foam.
Hill
• Typically, the mass of the object, m, and the peak deceleration, a, is
Anistrpy. also specified (as a multiple of gravitational acceleration, g) which
CTE determines the maximum stress, ,
Cellular
Matls. =ma/A (Eq. 2)
Wood
 82 Examinable

Shock Cushion: 2
• In addition, a drop height is specified which in turn sets the
velocity, v, and the energy, U, that must be absorbed;
Intro U = m v2 / 2. Thus the thickness, t, is given by
Composite
Applns. t = m v2 / (2 W A) (Eq. 3)
Properties
• This in turn specifies the strain rate, d/dt, in the foam which affects
Voigt,
Reuss,
the energy-stress relationship (see Fig. 8.4c):
Hill
d/dt = v / t (Eq. 4)
Anistrpy.
CTE
• A good place to start is to identify the maximum allowable stress
Cellular and read off the associated energy at a high strain rate. The energy
Matls. is, however, a function of both stress and strain rate, so some
Wood iteration is required to identify a suitable thickness.
 83 Examinable

Shock Cushion: 3
Worked Example
Problem specification
Intro
Mass of packaged object: 500 gms.
Composite Area of contact between object and foam: A = 0.01 m2
Applns.
Velocity of package on impact, v = 4.5 m/s (drop height, h = 1 m)
Properties
Energy to be absorbed, U = mv2/2 = 5 J
Voigt,
Reuss,
Max. allowable force on package (10g deceleration), F = ma = 50 N
Hill Max. allowable peak stress (Eq. 2), p = F/A = 5 kPa
Anistrpy. Solid modulus of polyeurethane foam, Es = 50 MPa
CTE Max. allowable peak stress, normalized = p/Es = 0.0001
Cellular We use Gibson-Ashby, fig. 8.8 (next slide).
Matls.
Wood Gibson & Ashby: Table 8.2, p. 231
 84 Gibson & Examinable

Shock Cushion: 4
Ashby

To start working on the

problem, we have to make
Intro some rather arbitrary choices
Composite of thickness that bracket the
Applns.
likely result.
Properties
Voigt, Choice of thickness, t: 1m 0.001 m
Reuss, Strain rate, d/dt=v/t (Eq 4): 4.5 s-1 4500 s-1
Hill
Anistrpy.
Energy/modulus (W/Es) at p/Es = 0.0001:
(Fig. 8.8) 5.25 10-5 7.4 10-5
CTE
Cellular Energy absorbed/unit volume: 2.62 kJ/m3 3.70 kJ/m3
Matls.
Wood To complete the problem, we have to iterate on the thickness
until we converge on a self-consistent result.
 85 Gibson & Examinable

Shock Cushion: 5
Ashby

To continue with the problem,

Intro we re-calculate the
Composite
thicknesses from Eq. 1.
Applns.
Properties
Voigt, Thickness, t = U/WA: 0.19 m 0.14 m
Reuss, Strain rate, d/dt=v/t (Eq 4): 24 s-1 32 s-1
Hill
Anistrpy.
Energy/modulus (W/Es) at p/Es = 0.0001:
(Fig. 8.8) 6.6 10-5 6.7 10-5
CTE
Cellular Energy absorbed/unit volume: 3.30 kJ/m3 3.35 kJ/m3
Matls.
Clearly we have nearly converged, so we have to iterate on
Wood
the thickness one more time, using t = U/WA, which gives t=
150 mm and an optimum relative density = 0.01.
 86 Examinable

Summary: Part 4
• Foams or cellular materials are an example of
Intro composite materials.
Composite • We developed an example of how cellular
Applns.
materials are useful as shock cushions.
Properties
Voigt, • This lead to worked example of how calculate the
Reuss, optimum thickness of such as shock cushion.
Hill
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 87

Summary: Overall
• Composite materials have been described with respect to
their microstructure-property relationships.
Intro
Composite
• Use of the composite approach enables much larger
Applns. variations in properties to be achieved within a given
Properties material type.
Voigt, • Careful optimization of the material with respect to all the
Reuss, property requirements [for a given application] is
Hill
essential.
Anistrpy.
• CTE of a composite can be estimated (supplementary
CTE
slides) from the CTEs of the constituent phases.
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 88

References
• Cellular Solids, Pergamon, L.J. Gibson and M.F. Ashby (1988), ISBN 0-08-036607-4.
• Materials Principles & Practice, Butterworth Heinemann, edited by C. Newey & G.
Weaver.
Intro • Mechanical Metallurgy, G.E. Dieter, 3rd edition, McGrawHill.
• Mechanical Behavior of Materials, T. H. Courtney (2000), Boston, McGraw-Hill.
Composite • Mechanical Behavior of Materials, N.E. Dowling (1999), Prentice-Hall.
Applns. • Structural Materials, Butterworth Heinemann, edited by G. Weidmann, P. Lewis and N.
Properties Reid.
• Physical Ceramics, Y.-T. Chiang, D.P. Birnie III, W.D. Kingery (1997), Wiley, New York, 0-
Voigt, 471-59873-9.
Reuss, • The New Science of Strong Materials, J. E. Gordon, Princeton.
Hill • An Introduction of Composite Products, Chapman & Hall, K. Potter (1997), ISBN 0-412-
73690-X.
Anistrpy. • An Introduction to the Mechanical Properties of Solid Polymers, Wiley, I.M. Ward and
CTE D.W. Hadley (1993), ISBN 0-471-93887-4.
• Variational Methods in Mechanics, Oxford University Press, USA, 1992, Toshio Mura,
Cellular ISBN0195068300.
Matls. • Plasticity: A Treatise on Finite Deformation of Heterogeneous Inelastic Materials,
Cambridge University Press, 2009, S. Nemat-Nasser, ISBN 0521108063.
Wood
• The Theory of Composites, Cambridge University Press, 2001, G. F. Milton,
ISBN 0521781256.
 89

Supplemental Slides
• The following slides contain supplemental
Intro material that will be of interest to those who are
Composite curious to obtain more detail.
Applns.
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 90

Improved bounds
• Upper and lower bounds for modulus have been
Intro developed by Hashin & Shtrikman that narrow
Composite the range between the two bounds.
Applns.
• Different formulae established for bulk, K, and
Properties
Voigt,
shear moduli, G.
Reuss, • Notation: bulk moduli KA and KB; shear moduli GA
Hill
and GB.
Anistrpy. VB
Klower = K A +
CTE
1 3(1 - VB )
+
K B - K A (3KA + 4GA )
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 91

Hashin-Shtrikman
1 - VB
Kupper = KB +
1 3VB
Intro +
Composite KA - KB (3K B + 4GB )
Applns.
Properties VB
Glower = GA +
Voigt,
1 6(K A + 2GA )(1 - VB )
Reuss, +
Hill GB - GA 5GA (3KA + 4GA )
Anistrpy.
CTE 1- VB
Gupper = GB +
Cellular 1 6(K B + 2GB )VB
Matls. +
Wood GA - GB 5GA (3KB + 4GB )
 92

Examples
• This example from
Green’s text shows
Intro how the bulk and
Composite shear moduli vary with
Applns.
volume fraction for
Properties
two phases whose
Voigt,
Reuss,
moduli differ by a
Hill factor of 10.
Anistrpy. • The result shows that
CTE the H-S bounds are
Cellular generally more useful.
Matls.
Wood
 93

Anisotropy in Composites
• The same methods developed in lecture 4 for
Intro
describing the anisotropy of single crystals can be
Composite
applied to composites.
Applns. • Anisotropy is important in composites, not
Properties because of the intrinsic properties of the
Voigt, components but because of the arrangement of
Reuss,
Hill
the components.
Anistrpy. • As an example, consider (a) a uniaxial composite
CTE (e.g. tennis racket handle) and (b) a flat panel
Cellular cross-ply composite (e.g. wing surface).
Matls.
Wood
 94

Fiber Symmetry
z
Intro
Composite
Applns.
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
Anistrpy.
CTE y
Cellular
Matls. x
Wood
 95

Fiber Symmetry
• We will use the same matrix notation for stress,
Intro
strain, stiffness and compliance as for single
Composite
crystals.
Applns. • The compliance matrix, s, has 5 independent
Properties coefficients.
Voigt,
Reuss, é s11 s12 s13 0 0 0 ù
Hill ê ú
Anistrpy. ê s12 s11 s13 0 0 0 ú
CTE
ê s13 s13 s33 0 0 0 ú
ê ú
Cellular
ê0 0 0 s44 0 0 ú
Matls.
ê0 0 0 0 s44 0 ú
Wood
ê ú
ë0 0 0 0 0 2( s11 - s12 )û
 96

Relationships
• For a uniaxial stress along the z (3) direction,
s3 1 æ s zz ö
Intro E3 = = ç= ÷
e 3 s33 è e zz ø
Composite
Applns. • This stress causes strain in the transverse plane:
Properties e11 = e22 = s1233. Therefore we can calculate
Voigt, Poisson’s ratio as:
Reuss,
e1 s13 æ exx ö
Hill n13 = = ç= ÷
Anistrpy. e3 s33 è ezz ø
CTE • Similarly, stresses applied perpendicular to z give
Cellular rise to different moduli and Poisson’s ratios.
Matls.
s1 1 -s -s
Wood E1 = = , n 21 = 12 , n 31 = 13
e1 s11 s11 s11
 97

Relationships, contd.
• Similarly the torsional modulus is related to
Intro shears involving the z axis, i.e. yz or xz shears:
Composite s44 = s55 = 1/G
Applns.
Properties
Voigt,
• Shear in the x-y plane is related to the other
Reuss, compliance coefficients:
Hill
s66 = 2(s11-s12) = 1/Gxy
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 98

Plates: Orthotropic Symmetry

• Again, we use the same matrix notation for
Intro
stress, strain, stiffness and compliance as for
Composite
single crystals.
Applns. • The compliance matrix, s, has 9 independent
Properties coefficients.
Voigt,
Reuss, é s11 s12 s13 0 0 0ù
Hill ê ú
Anistrpy. ê s12 s22 s23 0 0 0ú
CTE
ê s13 s23 s33 0 0 0ú
ê ú
Cellular
ê0 0 0 s44 0 0ú
Matls.
ê0 0 0 0 s55 0ú
Wood
ê ú
ë0 0 0 0 0 s66 û
 99

Plates: 0° and 90° plies

• If the composite is a laminate composite with fibers laid in
at 0° and 90° in equal thicknesses then the symmetry is
Intro higher because the x and y directions are equivalent.
Composite • The compliance matrix, s, has 6 independent coefficients.
Applns.
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss, é s11 s12 s13 0 0 0ù
Hill ê ú
Anistrpy. ê s12 s11 s13 0 0 0ú
CTE
ê s13 s13 s33 0 0 0ú
ê ú
Cellular
ê0 0 0 s44 0 0ú
Matls.
ê0 0 0 0 s44 0ú
Wood
ê ú
ë0 0 0 0 0 s66 û
 100

Anisotropy: Practical Applications

• The practical applications of anisotropy of
Intro composites, especially fiber-reinforced
Composite composites are numerous.
Applns.
• The stiffness of fiber composites varies
Properties
Voigt,
tremendously with direction. Torsional rigidity is
Reuss, very important in car bodies, boats, aeroplanes
Hill
etc.
Anistrpy.
CTE • Even in monolithic polymers (e.g. drawn
Cellular polyethylene) there exists large anisotropy
Matls. because of the alignment of the long-chain
Wood
molecules.
 101

Closed Cell Wall Bending

• LHS: response to
compressive loading in
Intro
the x direction;
Composite
Applns.
RHS: response to
Properties
compressive loading in
the y direction.
Voigt,
Reuss, • Consider loading in
Hill the x direction: each
Anistrpy. oblique segment
CTE experiences bending
Cellular at each end. The load,
Matls.
P, is
Wood P = 1(h + l sin q)b
[Gibson: Cellular Materials]
- see fig. 4.8b
 102

Modulus(relative density)
• Treat each segment as a beam of length l,
Intro thickness t, depth b, and Young’s Modulus Es.
Composite • The force, C, resolved on the y (vertical) direction
Applns.
must be zero in order to satisfy equilibrium.
Properties
Voigt, • The moment, M, on the segment:
Reuss, M = P l sinq / 2
Hill
Anistrpy. • The deflection, d, of the segment:
CTE d = P l3 sinq / 12EcellI
Cellular where I is the second moment of inertia:
Matls.
I = bt3 / 12
Wood
 103

Cell Geometry (general hexagonal)

relativedensity=
r*
=
( t l )( h l + 2)
r s 2 cos q ( h l + sin q )
h+lsinq l
Intro
Composite x2 or y
Applns.
q
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
h
Anistrpy.
CTE
x1
Cellular
Matls. t Regular honeycomb:
Wood b: depth of cell h = l, q = 30°
(out-of-plane) r*/rs = 2t/√3l
 104

Modulus(relative density): E1
• We need the component of the deflection that is
Intro parallel to the X axis, d sinq. Thus the strain is:
Composite
Applns.
d sin q s 1( + q ) q
2 2
Properties h l sin bl sin
e1 = =
Voigt,
Reuss,
l cos q 12EsI cos q
Hill
s1 E1 æ t ö cos q
3
Anistrpy.
E1 = \ =ç ÷
CTE e1 Es è l ø ( h l + sin q ) sin 2 q
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 105

Modulus(relative density): E2
• The modulus in the perpendicular direction is
Intro similar.
Composite
Applns.
Properties d cos q s 2bl cos q
4 4
e2 = =
Voigt,
Reuss,
h + l sin q 12EsI ( h + l sin q )
Hill
s2 E2 æ t ö ( h l + sin q )
3
Anistrpy.
E2 = \ =ç ÷
CTE
e2 Es è l ø cos q
3
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 106

Modulus(relative density): regular hex

For regular hexagons, the reduced moduli in the
Intro two directions are the same:
Composite
Applns. E1 / Ecell = E2 / Ecell = 2.3 (t/l)3
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss, We already established that the relative density for
Hill a regular hexagon is
Anistrpy. 2/√3 (t / l) ~ 2.3 (t / l), so we can write:
CTE
Cellular
Matls. E1 / Ecell = E2 / Ecell = 2.3 (rrcell)3
Wood
 107

Wood
Deformation
Intro
Composite
Applns.
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 108

Moisture, CTE

Intro
Composite
Applns.
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 109

Wood:
anisotropy
Intro
Composite
Applns.
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 110

Strength of Fiber Composites

• Just as for modulus, the simplest model for composite
strength is the Rule of Mixtures, where m is the tensile
Intro
strength of the matrix.
Composite
Applns.
Properties
c = mVm + fVf
Voigt,
Reuss, • A better model takes account of the actual stress-strain
Hill characteristics of the component phases.
Anistrpy.
• In MMCs, for example, the fiber reinforcement is often
CTE
quite brittle compared to the matrix (e.g. graphite fibers
Cellular in Mg, SiC fibers in Ti).
Matls.
Wood • The brittleness of the fibers limits the strain that can be
applied to a composite.
 111

Ductile matrix + brittle fibers

• If the composite is deformed beyond the breaking
Intro strain of the fibers, then the broken fibers no
Composite longer support load and their strengthening
Applns. contribution is lost. In this case, the strength is
Properties
just this:
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
Anistrpy.
c = mVm
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 112

Ductile matrix + brittle fibers, contd.

• At high enough volume fractions, however, the hardening in
the matrix is exhausted before the failure strength of the
fibers is reached. The matrix then fails at a (constant)
Intro
stress,
Composite
Applns.
  = E * ,
m m f

Properties
which corresponds to the failure strain, *f , of the fibers.
Voigt,
Reuss, Under these conditions, the strength of the composite is an
Hill average of the strength of the fibers and the strength of the
Anistrpy. matrix at the failure strain of the fibers. The strength of the
CTE composite then increases with volume fraction of
Cellular reinforcing fibers and is given by:
Matls.

c = mVm + fVf
Wood
 113

Ductile matrix + brittle fibers, contd.

• Thus there is a cross-over between the two types of behavior.
• A minimum volume fraction of fibers is required in order for the
Intro strength of the fiber composite to exceed that of the matrix.
Composite
Applns.
Properties
Voigt,
c = mVm + fVf
Reuss,
Hill c c = mVm
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
0 Vf 1
 114

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

• The next section relates the coefficient of thermal
Intro expansion (CTE) to the microstructure of
Composite composites, using glass-ceramics as an example.
Applns.
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 115

CTE versus modulus

• The thermal expansion coefficient of a composite,
Intro acomp, can be related to the expansion coefficients
Composite and bulk moduli of the constituent phases by the
Applns. following. Obviously, the composite bulk
Properties
modulus must be determined by other means.
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill

KB (a B - a A )( K A - Kcomposite)
Anistrpy.
CTE
acomposite = a A +
Kcomposite(K A - KB )
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
 116

Quartz
• The compressibility for b
cristobalite is given as 100.10-
Intro 6 K-1 (alpha-cristobalite) and

Composite 4.8.10-6 K-1 (beta-cristobalite).

Applns. • The CTE is given as 25.2.10-6
a
Properties for alpha-cristobalite and 11.2
.10-6 for beta-cristobalite.
Voigt,
Reuss, • Compare to the range of 12-
Hill 20.10-6 K-1 claimed for the
Anistrpy. glass-ceramic.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood
Cristobalite structure:
[Chiang et al.]
 117

Li-Zn glass ceramics

• Note the variation in expansion at the alpha-beta
Intro transition (displacive) in cristobalite.
Composite
Applns.
Properties
Voigt,
Reuss,
Hill
Anistrpy.
CTE
Cellular
Matls.
Wood