CELL

ORGANISATION
 PLANT

MERISTEMATIC PERMANENT

Epidermal Ground Vascular

 MERISTEMATIC
-Actively dividing cells
-Located at tips of the roots, buds of
shoots
-Characteristics:
small cells with
a)thin walls
b)large nuclei
c)dense cytoplasm
d)no vacuoles
 MERISTEMATIC

-Located at tips of the roots, buds of

shoots
 PERMANENT
a) Epidermal tissue
• outermost layer
• cover the stems, leaves and roots of young plants
• the wall exposed to air is cover with wax –
Function: minimise water loss through evaporation
 PERMANENT
a) Epidermal tissue
• some are modified into
(i) root hairs
Function: increase surface area for water absorption
 PERMANENT
a) Epidermal tissue
• some are modified into
(ii) guard cells
Function: control the opening and
closing of stomata
 PERMANENT
b) Ground tissue
• Form the bulk of plant
• 3 types:
 PERMANENT
b) Ground tissue
i.Parenchyma –
found in all organs
of the plant
Characteristic:
the least specialised cell, thin primary walls, large
vacuoles
Function:
stores starch & sugar
give support & shapes
• the most abundant of cell types
• found in almost all major parts of higher plants
• cells are basically sphere shaped,
have thin walls,
(which flatten at the points of contact
when many cells are packed together)
have large vacuoles
may contain various secretions (starch, oils,
tannins, and crystals)
Some parenchyma cells have many chloroplasts and form the
tissues found in leaves. This type of tissue is called
chlorenchyma.
(The chief function of this type of tissue is photosynthesis,
while parenchyma tissues without chloroplasts are generally
used for food or water storage.)
Additionally, some groups of cells are loosely packed together
with connected air spaces, such as in water lilies, this tissue is
called aerenchyma tissue. Parenchyma cells can divide if they
are mature, and this is vital in repairing damage to plant
tissues.
Parenchyma cells and tissues comprise most of the edible
portions of fruit.
 PERMANENT
b) Ground tissue
ii. Collenchyma
Characteristic:
unevenly thickened
cell walls,
especially at corners
Function:
Support non-woody (herbaceous)
plants, young stems & petioles
Collenchyma cells form collenchyma tissue.
These cells have a living protoplasm, like parenchyma cells,
and may also stay alive for a long period of time.
Their main distinguishing difference from parenchyma cells
is the increased thickness of their walls. In cross section, the
walls looks uneven.
Collenchyma cells are found just beneath the epidermis and
generally they are elongated and their walls are pliable in
addition to being strong.
As a plant grows these cells and the tissues they form,
provide flexible support for organs such as leaves and flower
parts.
Good examples of collenchyma plant cells are the ‘strings’
from celery that get stuck in our teeth.
 PERMANENT
b) Ground tissue
iii. Sclerenchyma
Characteristic:
Thickened by lignin
Function:
Give support and
mechanical strength to
mature regions of plants
Sclerenchyma cells form sclerenchyma tissue. These cells
have thick, tough secondary walls that are imbedded with
lignin.
At maturity, most sclerenchyma cells are dead and function in
structure and support.

Sclerenchyma cells can occur in two forms:

Sclereids
Fibres
Sclereids are sclerenchyma cells that are randomly
distributed throughout other tissues.
Sometimes they are grouped within other tissues in specific
zones or regions. They are generally as long as they are
wide. An example, would be the gritty texture in some
types of pears. The grittiness is due to groups of sclereid
cells. Sclereids are sometimes called stone cells.
Fibers are sometimes found in association with a wide
variety of tissues in roots, stems, leaves and fruits. Usually
fiber cells are much longer than they are wide and have a
very tiny cavity in the center of the cell. Currently, fibers
from over 40 different plant families are used in the
manufacture of textiles, ropes, string and canvas goods to
name a few.
 PERMANENT
c) Vascular tissue
• Continuous structure
throughout the plant

i. Xylem
ii. phloem
 PERMANENT
c) Vascular tissue
i. Xylem: mainly xylem
vessels joined
together end to end

Characteristics:
cytoplasm is absent
cell wall is thickened with lignin (provide support &
mechanical strength)
 PERMANENT
c) Vascular tissue
Parenchyma cells
i. Xylem
Function:
Xylem vessels
Transport water
and mineral salt to plant
tracheids
 PERMANENT
c) Vascular tissue
ii. phloem: mainly
sieve tubes joined
together end to end
Characteristics:
Has companion cells
Function:
Transport carbohydrates from
leaf to the other parts of plant
 PERMANENT
c) Vascular tissue
ii. phloem
Companion cell
Sieve plate
Sieve pore
Sieve tube cells

nucleus
LEAF
Epidermal tissues

Vascular tissues

Ground
Epidermal tissues
tissues
 bud
flower
Shoot
system branch
leaf

stem

root
Root
system
 bud

Flower
- For pollination branch
- For
support
leaf
- For stem
photosynthesis

root
- For absorption
of water &
mineral
The meaning of internal environment
The environment made by interstitial fluid and the blood plasma。
Body cells

Interstitial fluid

Blood
Blood plasma vessel
 Factors affecting the internal environment
Physical Chemical
factors factors

Temperature
Salt and sugar content
Blood pressure
pH value
Osmotic pressure
STEM
Homeostasis – maintainence of the optimal internal
environment at a constant level for optimal cell function

Explain the necessity to maintain an optimal internal

environment
Regulate the changes to maintain the internal environment
so that the metabolic processes can proceed at optimum rates
Describe the involvement of various systems in
maintaining an internal environment

Factors Systems
Body temperature Integumentary, circulatory,
endocrine, nervous and muscular

Blood sugar Endocrine, digestive and circulatory

O2 and CO2 Respiratory, circulatory and nervous

[ ] in blood
 Factors Systems
pH Circulatory, respiratory and excretory
http://www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~edudev/LabTutorials/Buffer/Buffer.html
Blood osmotic Endocrine, nervous, circulatory and
pressure excretory

Waste products, Circulatory, nervous, endocrine and

Eg:urea excretory
 1. More insulin is secreted to Negative
change glucose to glycogen feedback
2. Glucose is oxidised into
Blood
carbon dioxide and water
glucose Blood glucose
3. Sugar changed into fat
level level drops
increases

Normal at 90mg Normal at 90mg

per 100ml blood per 100ml blood

Blood glucose
Blood 1. Less insulin is secreted level increases
glucose to change glycogen to
level glucose
decreases 2. Metabolism of sugar is Negative
less feedback
 1. Decrease in metabolic rate
2. Vasodilation
3. Sweating Negative
4. Hair lies flat on surface feedback

Body temperature Body temperature

increases decreases

Normal body Normal body

temperature temperature

Body temperature Body temperature

decreases increases

1. Increase in metabolic rate

2. Vasoconstriction Negative
3. Shivering feedback
4. Hair raised up
Exercise
•Define a homeostasis control system. [3 marks]

A homeostasis control system functions by

interconnecting network of body components that
operate
to regulate chemical and physical factors in the internal
environment
relatively constant at optimal level.
Exercise
Using a flow chart, outline the negative feedback
control when the body temperature falls below
the set point. [7 marks]
Normal body Normal body
temperature temperature
Body temperature decreases Body temperature increases

1. Increase in metabolic
rate Negative
2. Vasoconstriction feedback
3. Shivering
4. Hair raised up
Exercise
Using a flow chart, outline the negative feedback control when
the body temperature falls below the set point. [7 marks]

When the body temperature falls below the set point,

metabolic rate increases to generates more heat
Vasoconstriction occurs, less blood brought to the skin surface, less
heat being radiated.
Shivering produces heat
Hair raised up to trap more heat
Negative feedback occurs
Body temperature increases above the set point