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2.1
Frequencies for communication
1 Mm 10 km 100 m 1m 10 mm 100 m 1 m
300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz
2.2
Frequencies for mobile communication
2.3
Frequencies and regulations
2.4
Signals I
2.5
Fourier representation of periodic signals
1
g (t ) c an sin( 2nft) bn cos( 2nft)
2 n 1 n 1
1 1
0 0
t t
ideal periodic signal real composition
(based on harmonics)
2.6
Signals II
t[s]
I= M cos
f [Hz]
2.7
Antennas: isotropic radiator
Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling of
wires to space for radio transmission
Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three
dimensional) - only a theoretical reference antenna
Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or
horizontally)
Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna
z
y z
y x ideal
x isotropic
radiator
2.8
Antennas: simple dipoles
Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles with lengths
/4 on car roofs or /2 as Hertzian dipole
shape of antenna proportional to wavelength
/4 /2
simple
x z x dipole
side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)
2.9
Antennas: directed and sectorized
Often used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile phones
(e.g., radio coverage of a valley)
y y z
directed
x z x antenna
z
z
x
sectorized
x antenna
2.10
Antennas: diversity
/2 /2
/4 /2 /4 /2
+ +
ground plane
2.11
Signal propagation ranges
Transmission range
communication possible
low error rate
Detection range
detection of the signal
possible
no communication sender
possible
Interference range transmission
signal may not be distance
detected detection
signal adds to the
interference
background noise
2.12
Signal propagation
2.13
Real world example
2.14
Multipath propagation
Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to
reflection, scattering, diffraction
multipath
LOS pulses pulses
signal at sender
signal at receiver
Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time
interference with “neighbor” symbols, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted
distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts
2.15
Effects of mobility
t
short term fading
2.16
Multiplexing
s3
f
2.17
Frequency multiplex
2.18
Time multiplex
Advantages:
only one carrier in the
medium at any time
throughput high even k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
for many users
c
Disadvantages: f
precise
synchronization
necessary
2.19
Time and frequency multiplex
Advantages:
better protection against
tapping k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
protection against frequency
selective interference c
higher data rates compared to f
code multiplex
but: precise coordination
required
2.20
Code multiplex
2.21
Modulation
Digital modulation
digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter
differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
Analog modulation
shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier
Motivation
smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
Frequency Division Multiplexing
medium characteristics
Basic schemes
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
2.22
Modulation and demodulation
analog
baseband
digital
signal
data digital analog
101101001 modulation modulation radio transmitter
radio
carrier
analog
baseband
digital
signal
analog synchronization data
demodulation decision 101101001 radio receiver
radio
carrier
2.23
Digital modulation
1 0 1
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
needs larger bandwidth
t
2.24
Advanced Frequency Shift Keying
2.25
Example of MSK
1 0 1 1 0 1 0
data bit
even 0101
even bits odd 0011
MSK
signal
t
No phase shifts!
2.26
Advanced Phase Shift Keying
2.27
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Q
0010
0001 Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol)
0011 Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the same phase φ,
0000
φ but different amplitude a. 0000 and 1000 have
a I different phase, but same amplitude.
1000 used in standard 9600 bit/s modems
2.28
Hierarchical Modulation
DVB-T modulates two separate data streams onto a single DVB-T stream
High Priority (HP) embedded within a Low Priority (LP) stream
Multi carrier system, about 2000 or 8000 carriers
QPSK, 16 QAM, 64QAM
Example: 64QAM
good reception: resolve the entire Q
64QAM constellation
poor reception, mobile reception:
resolve only QPSK portion
10
6 bit per QAM symbol, 2 most
I
significant determine QPSK
HP service coded in QPSK (2 bit),
LP uses remaining 4 bit
00
000010 010101
2.29
Spread spectrum technology
Side effects:
coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination
tap-proof
Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping
2.30
Effects of spreading and interference
dP/df dP/df
user signal
i) ii) broadband interference
narrowband interference
f f
sender
dP/df dP/df dP/df
iii) iv) v)
f f f
receiver
2.31
Spreading and frequency selective fading
channel
quality
1 2 5 6
narrowband channels
3
4
frequency
narrow band guard space
signal
channel
quality
2
2 spread spectrum channels
2
2
2
1
spread frequency
spectrum
2.32
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) I
Disadvantages resulting
signal
precise power control necessary
01101011001010
2.33
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) II
spread
spectrum transmit
user data signal signal
X modulator
chipping radio
sequence carrier
transmitter
correlator
lowpass sampled
received filtered products sums
signal signal data
demodulator X integrator decision
radio chipping
carrier sequence
receiver
2.34
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) I
2.35
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) II
tb
user data
0 1 0 1 1 t
f
td
f3 slow
f2 hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f1
td t
f
f3 fast
f2 hopping
(3 hops/bit)
f1
2.36
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) III
narrowband spread
signal transmit
user data signal
modulator modulator
frequency hopping
synthesizer sequence
transmitter
narrowband
received signal
signal data
demodulator demodulator
hopping frequency
sequence synthesizer
receiver
2.37
Cell structure
2.38
Frequency planning I
2.39
Frequency planning II
f3 f3 f3
f2 f2
f1 f1 f1 f2 f3 f7
f3 f3
f2 f2 f2
3 cell cluster f5 f2
f4 f6 f5
f1 f1 f1 f4
f3 f3 f3 f3 f7 f1
f2 f3
f6 f5 f2
7 cell cluster
f2 f2 f2
f1 f f1 f f1 f
3 h 3 h 3
h 2 h 2 3 cell cluster
g2 1 h3 g2 1 h3 g2
g1 g1 g1
g3 g3 g3 with 3 sector antennas
2.40
Cell breathing
2.41