Materials in Aerospace Application

Unit – I

By: -
K. Alfred Sunny
Asst. Prof.
Crystallography:

It is the study of the crystal formation of solids including

X-ray determination of lattice structures,

Crystal habit ( i.e. The form of crystal),
The shape and defects of crystals.

When it is applied to metals, this science is called metallography.

Crystallography:

It is the branch of science in which the internal structure of crystals, their properties,
external or internal symmetries of crystals are studied.

Crystalline materials consist of Atoms or Molecules arranged in a regular and orderly

manner in a three dimensional pattern.
The various terms associated with crystallography are :

1. Crystal

2. Structure

3. Space lattice

4. Unit cell

5. Crystallographic planes

6. Lattice parameters

7. Miller indices

8. Atomic packing factor

9. Coordinate packing factor etc.,

Crystal:

A crystal is a solid whose constituent atoms or molecules are arranged in a systematic

geometric pattern.

Structure:

The structure implies the arrangement and disposition of the atoms within a crystal.

Space Lattice:

The atoms arrange themselves in distinct pattern in space called a Space Lattice.

Unit Cell:

The unit cell is the smallest group of atoms possessing the symmetry of crystal.

Crystallographic Planes:

The layers of atoms or the planes along which atoms are arranged are known as Atomic or
Crystallographic planes.
Lattice Parameters:

Characteristic intercepts and interfacial angles of a crystal constitute the lattice parameters
of a cell.

Miller indices:

Miller indices is a system of notation for designating crystallographic planes and directions
of crystals.

Atomic Packing Factor:

Atomic packing factor is the ratio of volume of the atmos per unit cell to the total volume
occupied by the unit cell.

Coordinate Number:

Coordinate number is the number of nearest atoms directly surrounding a given atom in a
crystal i.e. Nearest neighbour to an atom in a crystal.
Types of Sloids:

A solid is one of the three states of matter, in which atoms are closely packed.

The atoms in the solid are not stationary but are vibrating around the fixed points, giving
rise to the orderly arrangement of crystal structures.

Sloids may be classified as

A. Crystalline solids
B. Amorphous soilds
C. A combination of both

Crystalline solids:

If atoms or molecules in a solid are arranged in some regular fashion, then it is known as
Crystalline Solids.

Amorphous Solids:

If atoms or molecules in a solid are arranged in some irregular fashion, then it is known as
Amorphous Solids.
Crystalline solids are made up of metallic crystals or non metallic crystals.

Metallic Crystals:

Metallic crystals have wide use in engineering owing to their favourable properties of
strength, ductility, conductivity and reflection.

In the formation of metallic crystal the ions are connected only indirectly, through the free
electrons suurounding them.

Therefore there are no directional properties involved in the metallic bond , and each atom
attracts as many neighbouring atoms as it can.

The result is closely packed structure having short, strong bonds and high density.

Structures of some of the more important metallic crystals are:

1. Faced Centered Cubic (F.C.C) – ex: Cu, Ag, Al, Ni, Pb, etc.,
2. Body Centered Cubic (B.C.C) - ex: W, Mo, Cr, etc.,
3. Hexagonal Close Packed (H.C.P) – ex: Mg, Zn, Ti, Cd, Zr, etc.,
Non-metallic crystals:

Non metallic crystals may have covalent or ionic bonding or any of a great variety of mixed
bonds.

A example of a covalent crystal is crystalline carbon. Other important covalent crystals are
crystallized polymers or plastics.

Some non metallic crystals also change form at different temperatures and pressures
(polymorphism).

Example : Tin crystallizes in a non metallic diamond structure (Gray Tin) at low
temperatures, and while at room temperature it forms a metallic structure (White Tin).

Incase of metallic crystals iron changes from BCC at room temperature to FCC at 906 C.

Unlike metallic crystals, the non metallic crystals are less ductile ( more Brittle) and low
electrical conductivity.
Amorphous Solids:

Materials in which the molecule is the basic structural solid and which have no regular
structure are called as amorphous.

In Amorphous materials the elementary particles are mixed together in a disorderly

manner, their positions bearing no fixed relationship to those neighbors.

An amorphous structure does not possess elasticity but only plasticity (except rubber).

Glass is a common amorphous material. Most glasses are essentially oxides of various
elements. A good example is amorphous silica (SiO2).

Most important amorphous materials are polymers. These molecular materials include
what are commonly known as plastics and rubbers.
2. Structure of Atom:

Atom Structure implies the system of electrons, protons, neutrons, etc., Making up an
individual atom.

An atom is an aggregate and that the electrons, protons and neutrons within it are
arranged in a configuration which resembles a miniature solar system.

An atom is made up of a small central part known as nucleus containing most of the mass
and carrying a positive electric potential of fixed value, the mass and charge being
characteristic of the type of atom.

The nucleus at the centre of the atom is composed of all the protons and neutrons in the
atom. The nucleus is an extremely dense structure and constitutes about 99.98% of the
weight of the atom.

Around the nucleus a number of particles of very small mass each with a small negative
charge of fixed value and each spinning on its own axis and simultaneously around the
nucleus at very high velocity.

The number of electrons is decided by the positive charge of the nucleus and is of a
magnitude to make the atom electrically neutral, there being a fixed number of electrons
in a given atom.
Atomic number: -

The number of either electrons or protons is the atomic number.

Iron has an atomic number 26, since it has 26 electrons balancing its 26 protons.

Atomic weight: -

The weight of atom is nearly proportional (or equal to) the total weight of proton and
neutrons in its nucleus. This weight of an element is called the Atomic weight.

Atomic weight range from 1.008 for hydrogen to nearly 250 for some of the unstable
transuranium elements.

Atomic weight is expressed in grams per gram-atom. One gram atom, always contains
6.02*1023 atoms. Thus atomic weight = 6.02*1023* (Weight of atom)

Electron: -

An electron is the unit quantity of electrical energy. It can be considered as a minute

particle or as an energy wave of negative charge.

The electrical energy that runs an electrical motor is a flow of electrons through a
conductor.
The electrons obey very rigid energy laws and can spin only in certain ordered
energy levels or orbital shells concentric with the nucleus, and only in certain energy
states or modes of oscillation with in those shells .

Each shell can contain only a certain number of electrons which cannot be exceeded
and is fixed.

If there are more electrons, than can be accommodated in a particular shell the
surplus electrons will then settle into the next outer shell and so on with increasing
number.

Quantum Number: -

The number of electrons in each shell varies with the shell position.

The maximum number of electrons in a given shell is 2n2, where ‘n’ is called the
principal quantum number of the sell.
With this theory,
1. The first or lowest-energy quantum shell (K) (n =1) contains 2n2 i.e., 2(1)2 = 2
electrons.
2. The second shell (L) (n =2) contains, 2(2)2 = 8 electrons.
3. The third shell (M) (n =3) contains, 2(3)2 = 18 electrons.
4. The fourth shell (N) (n =4) contains, 2(4)2 = 32 electrons, etc.
Hydrogen atom
Protons: -

The proton is a heavy particle of matter, 1836 times as heavy as the electron.

It carries a positive unit charge; that is, the charge on a proton is equal in quantity but
opposite in sign to the charge on an electron.

Neutron: -

The neutron is also a heavy particle of matter. 1838 times as heavy as the electron
i.e., just slightly heavier than the proton.

This particle is electrically neutral. Since it has no charge, it can readily penetrate
atoms when used as a projectile for transmutation experiments.

In normal atoms, the neutron has no electrical or chemical effect, but contributes only
mass. This results in subtly differing atoms called Isotopes.

Isotopes:-

Whereas the number of electrons and protons in a stable atom is a fixed characteristic
of each atom, it is possible for neutrons to vary somewhat in number among the atoms
of a given element.
Since the number of electrons or protons has not changed, the atomic number will
remain same.

However, depending upon the number of neutrons, the atomic weight will be
different.

The atom of varying atomic weight are called the isotopes of the element.

For example, Iron has isotopes that contain 28, 31 and 32 neutrons (instead of usual
30) and have atomic weights of 54, 57, and 58 respectively.

Many artificially prepared isotopes, such as cobalt 60, are radioactive and are used
for industrial (Gamma ray radiography) and medical applications.

Isobars: -

Isobars of elements also exist which have the same atomic weight but different
atomic numbers.
PRESENT CONCENPT OF ATOM:-

An atom is defined as the smallest part of an element which can take part in a
chemical reaction.

Earlier, atom were considered to be tiny solid billiard balls, but research work carried
out in the present century has resulted in an entirely different picture of atomic
structure.

The present concept of atom is that an atom consist of a central nucleus surrounded
by electrons at various energy levels.

The nucleus consists of tightly packed particle called neutrons and protons.

Protons are positively charged particles and neutrons are electrically neutral particles
i.e., neutrons have no electrical charge.
The atoms of all elements are built on this pattern, but differ from one another by the
number of protons and neutron contained in the nucleus,

For Example:

A Helium atom possesses 2 Electrons, 2 Protons and 2 Neutrons,

A Beryllium atom possesses 4 electrons, 4 Protons and 4 Neutrons.

An atom contains neutrons, protons and electrons.

An atom is electrically neutral, because neutrons are electrically neutral particles and
the protons have a positive charges equal in magnitude to the charge on electrons.

A Proton is about 1836 times heavier than an electron.

Neutron has a mass very nearly equal to that of the proton.

 RUTHERFORD’S AND BOHR’S MODELS OF ATOMS

Rutherford’s Model of atom: -

Rutherford proposed the model of atom in 1911

Rutherford suggested that an atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons

revolving in orbits like planets around the Sun.

According to Rutherford all the positive charge and all the mass were concentrated in
a very small volume or nucleus at the centre of the atom.

The negatively charged electrons (e) were imagined to be outside the positively
charged nucleus (n) and at relatively large distance from it.

Rutherford suggested that electrostatic attraction between the two opposite charges
was responsible for the atom together.
Rutherford’s model of the atom was fundamentally correct, but it contained a number
of deficiencies,

1. It had long been established that an accelerating electric charge should generate
electromagnetic radiation.

The electrons circulating round the nucleus, of an atom have an acceleration towards
the centre and should, therefore, be emitting radiation.

According to the established laws of electromagnetism, the steady loss of energy in

this way by the electron should cause it to spiral in towards the nucleus—thereby
destroying the stable structure of the atom.

2. According to the model proposed by Rutherford, it is possible to have an infinite

number of orbits which is not so in real practice.
OBJECTIONS TO THE BOHR ATOMS

1. The Bohr atom theory applies to one - electron atom i.e., hydrogen atom and is not
easily extended to describe atom having more than one electron.

2. The very arbitrary method of selecting allowed orbits had no theoretical basis.

3. The Bohr’s atom model involved quantities such as the radius of an orbit, which
could not be checked experimentally.