These are detailed drawings drawn accurately and precisely.

They are pictures that have been prepared with the aid of mathematical
instruments in order to record and transmit technical information.

Technical drawings do not portray the objects the way they directly
appear to the eye

They make use of many specialized symbols and conventions in order to

transmit technical information clearly and exactly.
 DRAWING/DRAFTING:-

Drawing and drafting are forms of visual language that use lines,
pictorial images, and symbols to convey specific meanings.

 Like spoken language, written language, and body language, this

visual language has its own unique applications.

In the design field drawing, also called sketching or idea generation, is
used as a technique for developing and communicating ideas.
DRAFTING
Drafting is a particular type of drawing that conveys specific
information about something’s size, composition, assembly, and other
exacting characteristics.

Drafting is usually a means to an end; that is, it serves as a guide on

how to make something.
DRAFTING STANDARDS:-

Drafting floor plans is more efficient if a

logical sequence is followed; that is,
first lay out the walls,
 openings,
door swings,
 fixtures, and cabinets; then add dimensions,
symbols, and any necessary notes.
SETTING FOR DIMENTIONING
Text height

Standard text height for:

• Notes, dimensions, annotations, etc. 2.5 mm

• Major headings 4.5 mm, 5.0 mm
• Subheadings 3.5 mm.
• Text smaller than 2.5 mm can only be used under special conditions
and must have PWGSC approval
 SCALE OF FLOOR PLANS

Residential floor plans are relatively small in overall square footage

and are generally drawn at a scale of 1⁄4" = 1'-0" (1:50 in metric
scale).
 As commercial spaces can be quite large, a scale of 1⁄8" =1'-0" (1:100
metric) or even 1⁄16" = 1'-0“ (1:200 metric) might be more
appropriate.
An actual length of 1 cm is measured on a 1:50 blueprint floor plan.
The physical length can be calculated as. (1 cm) 50 = 50 cm. Imperial
Units - US. A 1/4" scale means that each 1/4" (inch) on the plan
counts for 1' (feet) of actual physical length.
 IMPORTANCE OF LAYER
1. Representation of the sectional views of the 2d drawings.
2. Handling or managing of the various entities in the drawings such as text,
dimensional lines, centre lines, hidden lines, etc.
3. Each layer can be defined to have its own line weight or the thickness that
is to be printed in the hard copy.
4. Each layer created can be independently switched on and off in order to
have a better visibility of the drawing. For example, if one just needs to
see the outline of the component, he or she can very well switch of other
layers containing center lines, dimensions, etc.
5. All layers if required can be freezed up in order to ensure that nothing is
overwritten or changed in the particular layer.
6. Each layer can have its own unique colour and line type modules.
COLOUR CODE FOR PLANS
PLAN

WITH STANDARD
LAYER
 General Classifications
◦ Flush doors
 Smooth on both sides
 Mahogany or birch plywood
◦ Panel doors
 Heavy frame around perimeter
 Parts
 Stiles
 Rails
 Panels
 Louvers
 Swinging doors  French doors
◦ Hinged ◦ Mullions and muntins
between glass panes
◦ Swing into the house
◦ One large glass panes
 Sliding doors
◦ Individual, pairs, groups
◦ Wood or metal frames
 Garage doors
◦ Tempered glass
◦ Overhead
◦ Access to deck/patio ◦ One piece or sectional
◦ Common widths ◦ Widths
 6’-0”  Singles: 8’, 9’, 10’
 8’-0”  Doubles: 15’,16’, 18’
◦ Height generally 7’-0”
 Typical sizes
◦ 6’-8” tall by 1-3/4” thick
◦ Entry door minimum 3’-0”
◦ Insulated
 Sloping sills to shed water
 Bi-fold
◦ Set of two doors make up one unit
◦ Hung on a track
◦ Popular for closets
 Sliding/Bypass
◦ Hung on a track
◦ Popular for closets
◦ Used in wide openings
 Pocket doors
◦ Hung on a track
◦ Slides into a wall cavity
◦ Frees floor space
◦ Packaged with framed pocket
 Double-action
◦ Spring hinge mounted
◦ Swings two ways
◦ One or two doors
 Standard sizes
◦ Height: 6’-8”
◦ Thickness: 1-3/8”
◦ Width: Varies based on 2” module
 Standard widths
◦ Entry: 3’-0”
◦ Bedrooms: 2’-6”
◦ Baths: 2’-0” or 2’-4”
◦ Closets: As large as possible
 DOORS AND WINDOWS IN PLAN VIEW
Doors and windows are drawn in the floor plan using various symbols
and images, and are further dimensioned and referenced to
schedules in the construction drawings.
The symbols used will depend upon the operating action of the door
or window, the specifics needed to describe it, and the scale of the
floor-plan drawing
Doors
Doors are generally classified by their action, as illustrated in
and whether they are interior or exterior units.
DOORS PLAN VIEW
DOORS TYPES
SWINGING GLASS DOOR
 STANDARD
DOOR SIZE
EWDFDF
6’6”x2’10” IS
REPLACE SLIDING
DOORs

THE STANDARD
DOOR THICKNESS
IS 1 ¾”
DOOR SIZE
DETAILING
DOOR FRAME
 2.9”

½”

DOOR FRAME 1 ½”

2 ½”
SECTION

2”
5”

1 ½” 2” 1 ½”
1/2”

2 ½”
2”
5”
DOOR FRAME DETAILING
• I.S.1003 RECOMMENDED SIZES FOR DOORS AND
WINDOWS:

a) Vertical stile, top and frieze rail width : 150 ± 3mm

b) Lock rail width : 150 ± 3mm
c) Bottom rail width : 200 ± 3mm
d) Mounting width : 100 ± 3mm
e) Glazing bar : 40 ± 1mm
f) Thickness for all members : 35 ± 1 or 40 ± 1mm
FULLY PANELED DOOR

Plan view symbol

WINDOWS
• Purpose
• Admits light
• Provides fresh air and ventilation
• Adds detail, balance, interest
• Visually enlarges interior space
WINDOW TYPES
• Double-hung
• Two sashes slide up and down
• Most commonly used
• Horizontal sliding/gliding
• Two or more sashes slide
horizontally
• Operates on a track
• Casement
• Hinged sashes; outward swing
WINDOW TYPES
• Awning
• Sash hinged on top; swings
outward
• Allows open unit during rain
• Hopper
• Hinged sash on bottom; swings
inward
• Allows for unusual shapes
• Fixed
• Do not open
• Combined with other windows
WINDOW TYPES
• Bay and Bow
• Fixed or casement
• Project from structure
• Bay windows offer traditional style
• Sides drawn @ 450 or 300
• Depth between 18” and 24”
• Roof structure
• Bow windows are in a circular pattern
• Skylights
• Built into roof
• Admit light
DOOR/WINDOW SCHEDULES
• Marks placed on floor plan identify doors &
windows
• Numbers or letters inside circles or polygons identify
individual units
• Placed close to door & window symbols
• Same mark used for doors/windows with same size
and characteristics
DOOR/WINDOW SCHEDULES
• Arrange all information about doors and
windows in a chart
• Repeat marks on floor plans
• List number of doors/windows
• List size of individual and multiple units
• Identify types
• Includes material notes and special
remarks
• May include elevation drawings near chart
WINDOW DETAILING
REINFORCED CONCRETE:-

Symbols commonly used on reinforced concrete drawings are:

# -To indicate size of deformed bar (superscript)
Ø -Plain rounds, e.g., spirals (superscript)
@ -Spacing center to center
-Direction in which bars extend-
-Limits of area covered by bars-
INTRODUCTION TO FOUNDATIONS

Function of a foundation is to transfer the structural loads from a

building safely into the ground.

•Purpose of foundation:-

1. To distribute the weight of the structural over large area

so as to bring down the intensity of load at its base
below the safe bearing capacity of sub-soil.
2. To support the structures.
3. To distribute the non-uniform load of the superstructure,
uniform to the sub-soil.
TYPES OF FOUNDATION
Major Building Parts

Superstructure

Substructure

Foundation
 The foundation can be broadly classified into:

 Shallow foundations
 Deep foundations
Shallow foundation:-
•Depth less than or equal to Width.
•B >=D

•Deep foundation:-
•Depth more than Width.
•B<D

B=width
D=depth
 Main types of foundation
 Foundations or ‘footings’ come under two main
categories:

 SHALLOW and DEEP

 Shallow foundations or ‘spread footings’ include pads,

strip footings and rafts.
 Shallow foundations
 The guidelines for a shallow foundation are :
 They are founded near to the finished ground surface.
 The depth is generally less than the width of the footing
and less than 3m.
 They are used when the surface soils are strong enough
to support the load imposed upon it.
 Deep foundations
 Shallow foundations are unsuitable in weak or highly
compressible soils.
 DEEP foundations include piles, pile walls and piers.
 Deep foundations are usually at depths deeper than 3m.
 Deep foundations are used to transmit the loading to a
deeper, more competent strata
 Strip foundations
These are use to support a line
of loads such as a load
bearing wall.
They could also be used where
the line of column positions
are so close that individual
pad foundations would be
pointless.
 Raft Foundations
 These are used to spread the
load from a structure over a
large area.

 This would normally be the

entire area of the structure.
 Raft foundations
 Raft foundations are often
needed on soft or loose soils
which have a low load bearing
capacity.
 Pads and pile foundations
 Pad foundations support an
individual point of load.

 Piles are used to support buildings

in poor soil conditions.
 A basic pile foundation is a series of
stilts which rest on a solid load
bearing layer.
 PILE MATERIAL
 Steel; H- piles, Steel pipe
 Concrete; Site cast or Precast
 Wood; Timber
 Composite
Driven Piles
Precast Concrete Plies
Jack Pile Underpinning ~ This
method can be used when the depth of a
suitable bearing capacity subsoil is too
hydraulic jacks have been removed.
deep to make traditional underpinning
uneconomic. Jack pile underpinning is
quiet,
vibration free and flexible since the pile
depth can be adjusted to suit subsoil
conditions encountered. The existing
foundations must be in a good condition
since they will have to span over the heads
of the pile caps which are cast onto the
jack pile heads after the
 LOADS ON FOUNDATION
Dead Load : Refers to the overall weight of the structure. Includes weight of
the materials permanently attached to the structure (such as flooring) and fixed
service equipment (such as air conditioning)

Live load : Refers to the weight of the applied bodied that are not permanent
parts of the structure. Applied to the structure during part of its useful life (e.g.
people, warehouse goods). Specified by code.

Wind loads : Acts on all exposed parts of the structure. Calculated using
building codes.

Earthquake Forces : Building code is consulted.

 DEPTH AND LOCATION OF FOUNDATION

Depth and location of foundation depends on

1. Zone of significant volume changes in soil.

2. Adjacent structures and property lines.

3. Ground water

4. Underground defects
column

“A LONG SLENDER BAR

SUBJECTED TO AXIAL
COMPRESSION IS CALLED A
COLUMN.”

Axial compression means the

compressive forces act at the to
ends of the member in the opposite
direction are along the same axis.
SIZE OF COLUMN DEPENDING UPON SPAN

SPAN (FEET) SIZE OF COLUMN

0-9
9” x 9”

9-12 9” x 12”

12-15 9” x 15”

15-18 9” x 18”

18-24 9” x 24”
DIFFERENT SIZE OF COLUMN
Columns can be identified in a floor plan by assigning numbers and
letters to a grid locating their centerlines or faces.
COLUMN FOOTING DETAILS:-
COLUMN
SECTION
DETAILING
BEAM
“ A beam is a structural member used
for resisting vertical loads, shear forces
and bending moments.”
Types of beam base of support :-
1. Simply supported beam
2. Cantilever beam
3. Overhanging beam
4. Continuous beam
5. Fixed beam
 BEAM DESIGN
• Beams are used in floors and roofs.
• Maybe called floor joists, stringers, floor beams or
girders.
• Loads on beams are either concentrated or distributed
(uniform loads)
• Designed for Shear, Moment (bending) and Deflection
 BEAMS
• Beams are sized appropriately to safely support the loads a
structure will carry.
• Beams are primarily subjected to bending and shear.
• Deflection and deformation can be calculated.
• Beams are sized to provide the maximum result with the
minimum materials. A factor of safety is included in the
design.
 BEAM DEFLECTION

• Limit Deflection to
– L/240 of total load (whereas L=length in inches)
– L/300 of total load
– L/360 of total load (building use throughout life is
unknown) Preferred
• WHY??
– Ceiling cracks in plaster
– Roof ponding (flat roofs)
– Visual or psychological reasons
-- Designer’s judgment
 Beam Types
• Simple

• Continuous

• Cantilever
Moment
(fixed at one end)
 Beam Types

• Fixed

Moments at each end

• Propped- Fixed at one end supported at other

• Overhang
BEAM SECTION DETAIL DRAWING:-
 FRAMED
STRUCTURE WITH
BEAM COLUMN
SLAB BAR & BEAM
WITH LAYERS
LINTEL BEAM
LAYOUT PLAN
&
COLUMN POSITION
SLAB BEAM
DETAIL
DRAWING
STAIR`S:- SECTION & PLAN
STAIR
SECTION
DETAILING
STAIR SECTION DRAWING:-
SECTION AND ELEVATION SYMBOLS
 A circle is generally used that is divided in two sections. In the top portion, a letter,
such as A, B, or C, generally indicates how many sections are cut
 The bottom section of the circle contains a number that refers to the sheet number this section
is drawn on.
 An arrow indicating the direction of view.
ELECTRICAL PLAN
FURNITURE
LAYOUT PLAN
SUBMISSON
DRAWING
 Let’s see
Some Key terms of
the Building Bye-Laws

95
 Built-Up Area
“Area of all floors above or below the ground”
Details to be included Details not to be included
Basement Steps
Building Structure Otta
Ramps Kundi
Swimming pool Soak pit
Reservoir Fountain
Chimney Manhole
Water purification plant Water tank
Humidity plant Frame
Duct for humidity Swing
96
Carpet Area:-
“Net usable area within building”
To calculate carpet area deduct following areas from plinth
area.
• Verandah, • W/c bath
• Passage • Thickness of wall
• Corridor, • Vertical shaft for
• Porch drainage
• Lift

97
FLOOR AREA:-

“Usable area on each floor”

It includes the following things
• Porch
• Each flat area in single floor for apartment
• Stairs
• Corridor
• Door swing place

98
 PLINTH AREA:-
“AREA OF EACH FLOOR COVERED BY ROOF”
Area to be included in
plinth area
Area of walls at floor level
excluding plinth offset, external
area of projecting cladding.
Cover of stair
Barsati
Machine room
Porch without cantilever
Area not to be included in
plinth area
Additional floor to accommodate
seats in theatre, assembly hall, or
auditorium
Balcony
Curvature provided to improve
appearance
Platform without cover terrace above
floor
Dome, tower at terrace, spiral stairs
99
BASEMENT:-

“Lower storey of a building having minimum half the

clear floor area height of the basement of cellar
below average ground floor.”
• Basement is not permitted in margins
• Area of basement < 2 × Area of plinth or plot
whichever is less
• Use of wood as structural member is not permitted.

100
USE OF BASEMENT:-
Basement can be used as
• Domestic store
• Safe deposit vault
• Air conditioning machine place
• Parking
• Other service equipments

101
FLOOR SPACE INDEX(FSI)
IT IS ALSO CALLED FLOOR AREA RATIO
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑠
𝐹𝑆𝐼 =
𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

State government have permitted to increase FSI up to 1.25

on payment of additional fees in town planning scheme
Zone
areas of some cities Maximum Permissible FSI
Residential(Sanctioned) 1.8
Residential(New Proposed) 1.2
Natural Growth of village 1.2
Commercial 1.8
Industrial 1.0

102
CALCULATION:-
assuming each square =10 sq.m

plot area = 18 x 10 = 180 sq.m

maximum GC = 50 % of plot area

= 90 sq.m

permissible built-up area

=180 x FAR
=180 x 1.5
=270 sq.m

area of each floor = 270/3

=90 sq.m
TYPES OF BUILDING

1. Apartments: Building with more than one storey and

combined construction
2. Assembly building: Buildings where group of
people gather for amusement, social, religions,
recreation, patriotic, civil, travel or similar purposes
3. Business building: Building used for transaction of
record, offices, banks etc.
4. Chawl : Building prepared for rental purpose, each
tenant will have two rooms & bathrooms and toilets
are combined
104
 TYPES OF BUILDING

5. Educational Building: Exclusively used for schools

and collages
6. Mercantile Building: Building used as shops, stores
market for display
7. Row houses: Building having residential units
provided in row with same plans
8. Storage building: Building used for storage or shelter
of goods, ware house, cold storage

105
TYPES OF BUILDING

9. High rise building: Building having height more than

15m but less than 30m
10. Low rise building: Building having height less than
15m
11. Industrial building: Building in which products or
materials are fabricated, assembled or processed
12. Institutional Building: Building constructed for
public activities like medical, education, etc.

106
 MINIMUM STAIR WIDTH
Type of Building Width of stair in meter
Residential 1
Hotels 1.5
Assembly type buildings like 1.5
cinema theatres auditoriums etc.
Educational institutions
up to 24m height 1.5
more than 24m 2
height
Hospital up to 10beds 1.5
more than 10 beds 2
Other Buildings 1.5
107
PARKING:-
• Separate provisions for cars, scooters, visitors should
be made
• Common plot must not be used for parking
• Head room for the road leading to parking should not
be less than 2.1m
• For a car – 14m2 area required
• For a motor cycle – 1.25 m2 area required
• For a cycle – 0.8 to 1 m2 area required

108
PARKING AREA FOR DIFFERENT BUILDINGS
Types of Building Suggested parking Area
Residential 15% of total built up area of all
floor
Cinema & Assembly hall 1m2 per seat
Shops, offices, institutes, hospitals, etc. 30% of total built up area of all
floors
Community hall, recreation club, party plot 50% of area

Collages 70 m2 per 100 students

i) Secondary & higher secondary schools 50 m2 per 100 students
ii) Primary schools 20 m2 per 100 students
Grain, timber agriculture, whole sale 30% of total built up area of all
markets floors

109
 SET BACK:-
“Some distance kept between road line and
a plinth of building parallel to road line.”
• This land though remains in possession of
the owner of the plot.
• Can be utilized for widening of road in
future
• 1.5m set back for roads up to 12m.
• 2m set back for the road wider than 12m.
110
 ADVANTAGES OF SET BACK:-
• Availability of sufficient light & ventilation.
• Availability of land for widening of roads in future.
• Availability of sufficient sight distance at road crossings.
• Availability of space for parking.
• Availability of necessary privacy.
• Reduction of unwanted noise.

111
VENTILATION
• For habitable room, the area of clear total opening
excluding frames should not be less than 1/10 the floor
area of room.
• Windows or ventilators provided for ventilation
should abut exterior open space, or open verandah or
gallery.
• For factory or go-downs clear area of windows and
ventilators should not be less than 1/7 floor area.

112
 VENTILATION

• The width of the open space on which the ventilators

should not be less than 1/3 height of building.
• Relaxation in the above recommendations may be
made when artificial ventilation is provided.
• For stair room the ventilation per floor should not be
less than 1m2.

113
ABREVIATION

• A - Architecture
• S- Structural
• M- Mechanical
• E-Electrical
• P-Plumbing
• I- Interiors
• F- Finishes or Furniture
• Q- Equipment
 ABREVIATION • EI- Employee Information
• EL- Emergency Lighting
• EM- Emergency
• AP- Approach Slabs • EN- Environment
• AZ - Airport Zoning
• BC -Building Common Areas “Accessory B” • EP- Emergency Power Equipment
• BH -Borehole Data (Geotechnical) • EQ- Equipment
• BP- Blocking Plan
• EW- Emergency Power Wiring and Cabling
• BS - Building Service Areas
• BW - Breakwater Features • EX- Exterior Site Areas
• CF- Cadastral Fabric • FC- Floor Common Areas
• CI -Circulation
• CK-Clock Systems • FL- Floors
• CL- Ceilings • FN- Foundations
• CS- Control Systems
• DA- Data Systems • FP- Fire Protection
• DI- Diesel Fuel Distribution • FR- Electrical Fire Protection
• DK- Deck
• FU- Furniture
• DR- Doors
• DT- Details • FW- Flat Wiring
• DW- Domestic Water • GA- Gross Area
• EG- Emergency Generation
• GD- Grounding
DRAINAGE

Drains ~ These can be defined as a means of conveying surface

Water or foul water below ground level.
Sewers ~ These have the same functions as drains but collect the
Discharge from a number of drains and convey it to the final
Outfall. They can be a private or public sewer depending on who is
Responsible for the maintenance.
Basic Principles ~ To provide a drainage system which is simple
Efficient and economic by laying the drains to a gradient which will
Render them self cleansing and will convey the effluent to a sewer
Without danger to health or giving nuisance. To provide a drainage
System which will comply with the minimum requirements given in
Part H of the building regulations
Simple Domestic Drainage
SANITARY
DRAWING
• *The floor plan represents a
section view of a residence
which has had an imaginary
cut made approximately 4 feet
above the floor line.
• *Residential floor plans are
generally drawn at a scale of
1/4” = 1'-0”.
After the foundations have been completed the walls are set
out and construction commences.

wall structures
 WALLS VERSUS PARTITIONS
• Walls
• A general term for a vertical building
component used to support loads and
divide up living spaces
• Also a term used exclusively to
describe exterior vertical surfaces
• Partitions
• Interior walls

122
 TYPES OF WALLS
• Partitions and walls may each be load-bearing (LB) or non-load-
bearing (NLB).

• With these combinations, there are four possible types of walls and
partitions.

123
 TYPES OF WALLS

• LBW – Load-Bearing Wall

• NLBW – Non-Load-Bearing Wall

• LBP – Load-Bearing Partition

• NLBP
– Non-Load-Bearing Partition

124
Virtual Construction

125
Virtual Construction

126
Virtual Construction These are exterior,
thus they are walls.

127
 They are also load-
Virtual Construction bearing.

LBW

LBW

128
 These are exterior,
Virtual Construction thus they are walls.

129
 They are also load-
Virtual Construction bearing.

LBW

LBW

130
Virtual Construction

LBW

LBW

131
Virtual Construction This wall is exterior,
but is not load-bearing.

LBW

LBW NLBW

132
 This is an interior wall
Virtual Construction (partition) and can be
load-bearing.

LBW
LBP

LBW NLBW

133
Virtual Construction The others are interior and
non-load-bearing.

NLBP
LBW
LBP

LBW NLBW

134
Virtual Construction

135
 Construction is
Virtual Construction systematic

136
Virtual Construction and the upper plates and
studs

NLBP
LBW
LBP

LBW NLBW

137
Standard size of brick

190mm x 90mm x 90mm

or
8” x 3 ¾” x 2 ¼”
Brick work
Special brick:-Specials these are
required for feature work and
application to
various bonds, as shown on the
preceding pages. Bonding is not
solely for aesthetic enhancement. In
many applications, e.g. English
bonded manhole walls, the disposition
of bricks is to maximize wall
strength and integrity. In a masonry wall
the amount of overlap
should not be less than one quarter of a
brick length. Specials may
be machine or hand cut from standard
bricks, or they may be
purchased as purpose-made. These
purpose-made bricks are
relatively expensive as they are
individually manufactured in
hardwood moulds.
Various bond
MIX PROPORTION DESIGNATIONS

The common method of expressing the proportions of

ingredients of a concrete mix is in the terms of parts or
ratios of cement, fine and coarse aggregates. For e.g., a
concrete mix of proportions 1:2:4 means that cement, fine
and coarse aggregate are in the ratio 1:2:4 or the mix
contains one part of cement, two parts of fine aggregate
and four parts of coarse aggregate. The proportions are
either by volume or by mass. The water-cement ratio is
usually expressed in mass
 Ratios of Cement, Sand and aggregate for different works

Foundation base for temporary

M-5 (1: 5: 10 or 1:6: 12)
construction of general nature

Foundation base for good building etc. M-7.5 (1:4:8 or 1:5:10)

R.C.C. Bridge M-15, (1:2:4)

Important Construction –slab, beam, M-20, (1:1½ : 3)

column.
The proportions generally adopted are as given
below
ACQUIRED STRENGTH OF PCC WITH TIME

Time Elapsed Acquired strength in % of F. Strength

After 3 days 40%

After 7 days 65% - 67%

After 28 days 100%

After 03 months 115% - 122%

After 06 months 120% - 146%

After 12 months (1 year) 130% - 155%

 REQUIREMENT OF MATERIAL FOR
PREPARING 1 CUB. M. OF CONCRETE
 CURING

Initial setting of concrete though starts after 30 minutes of pouring, but

it starts hardening after 2 hours.
After the elapse of 24 hrs. after pouring of concrete, it is required to be
kept wet (fully) for 14 days in continuation. This process is called
curing. Any brickwork over the concrete can be started only after 48 hrs.
but the curing should simultaneously continue for at least 14 days.
Curing is an important thing in any concrete work. If not properly cured,
the concrete loses strength and becomes easily breakable which is
dangerous.
 1. Introduction
When the ratio (L/S) is less than 2.0, slab is called two-way slab, as shown in the
fig. below. Bending will take place in the two directions in a dish-like form.
Accordingly, main reinforcement is required in the two directions.
Rules-of-thumb for structural members in concrete
construction
1. Beams:
a. Overall depth of beams = span /5
b. With of beams = depth/2
2. Columns:
a. Minimum dimension is 8” on a side
b. Cross sectional area in square inches = load (in psi)/1000
3a. Floor structures / Slabs without joist ribs (i.e. flat slabs; common in multi-family
housing):
a. Slabs spanning up to 12’ in the direction of the deflection.
b. Thickness of the slab = span/20
- OR -
a. Slabs spanning up to 24’x 24’ (i.e. 576 sq. ft.)
b. Thickness of the slab = span/30
3b. Floor structures / Slabs with one-way joist ribs:
a. slabs spanning from 12’ to 30’ in the direction of the deflection.
b. good for oblong bays
c. overall depth of slab plus joist ribs = span/20 + 2 ½”
d. common spacing of 20” and 30” between ribs
e. joists commonly have a width of 5” to 9”
3c. Floor structures / Two-way spans:
a. Waffle slabs are used for 24’ to 50’ in the large dimension (maximum of 2500 sq. ft.)
b. Overall thickness of slab and joist rib = span/30 + 2 ½”
c. Rectangular modules have common linear dimensions of 2’,3’, 4’, & 5’
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