Unit 4

Heat Treatment Equipment -I

(Various heating media used for heat treatment &
Temperature and atmosphere control)

Dr. S. Rajendra Boopathy, Professor, Department

of Mechanical Engineering,
College of Engineering, Guindy,
Anna University Chennai.
The equipment required for heat-treating consists of
furnaces or other heating devices, quenching baths,
temperature controls and sensors, required for the
proper operation of the equipment or for the control
of the process.

For a heat treating process the important

considerations to be focused are:

 Various heating media used for heat treatment

 Temperature and atmosphere control
 Quenching media and their characteristics
 Various heat treatment furnaces
 VARIOUS HEATING MEDIA USED FOR HEAT
TREATMENT

In order to obtain the required properties for a metal the heat

treatment process is carried under the surrounding of several
gases.

• Open air heat treating.

• Heat treating under the surrounding of some gases.
• Vacuum heat treating.

These Are The Basic Media Used For Heat Treatment

• The heat treatment of metal components such as steel
in air leads to surface oxidation. The type and
thickness of oxide layers produced are dependent on
the temperature of the heat treatment, the duration of
exposure, and, also on the type of steel.
(Open air heat treating)
• To avoid surface oxidation the air in the heat
treatment furnace must be replaced by an
atmosphere that does not contain oxygen.

• Another way to avoid surface oxidation is to

reduce the amount of air surrounding the
workpieces by vacuum heat treating.
• The use of an inert atmosphere, such as
nitrogen (N2), is one method to reduce
surface oxidation.
• Another is the use of a protective atmosphere
that utilizes nitrogen in combination with
reducing elements such as hydrogen (H2) and
carbon monoxide (CO).
• Thermal processing by evacuation of air to a
low level that the remaining oxygen is below
the oxidation level of the material. This can
be achieved by vacuum type heat treating.
 Primary Furnace Gases

•Nitrogen
•Hydrogen
•Carbon Monoxide
•Carbon Dioxide
•Argon and Helium
•Dissociated Ammonia
•Steam
•Hydrocarbons
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GAS MEDIUM
• Nitrogen is considered to be chemically inert and is used as a carrier gas
for reactive furnace atmospheres, for purging furnaces, and in other
processes requiring inert gases. However, at high temperature, nitrogen
may not be compatible with certain metals such as molybdenum,
chromium, titanium, and columbium.
Example:
NITRIDING is one example by which a case or skin of hardened steel can
be produced. The piece to be case hardened is put into a furnace and
heated to between 950° and 1,200°F and, at the same time, is exposed to
ammonia gas. The heat of the furnace causes the ammonia to break down
into nitrogen and hydrogen. Some of the nitrogen combines with the
elements in the steel to form chemical compounds called nitrides in the
outer layer of the steel. These nitrides give the surface its hard, wear-
resistant qualities.
• Hydrogen is a highly reducing atmosphere that is used both for
preventing steel oxidation and for oxide reduction according to the
surface reactions hydrogen may be adsorbed by the metal at elevated
temperatures, causing hydrogen embrittlement. Hydrogen is potentially an
extremely explosive and flammable gas. However, if proper safety
precautions are followed, it can be used safely in heat treatment.

• Carbon monoxide is also considered to be a reducing gas as it may

reduce iron oxide. Although CO is a reducing atmosphere, it is not as
good a reducing agent as hydrogen. Carbon dioxide is a mildly oxidizing
gas. It will form oxides upon reaction with iron at elevated temperatures.
• Helium and argon are also considered to be inert gases
for heat treatment processes because they will not undergo
gas–solid reactions, even at high temperatures. Water
vapor (steam) is also an important component in heat
treating.

• Steam will react with steel at 343oC–650oC to produce a

blueing effect, which imparts a wear-resistant and
oxidation-resistant surface furnish. This is due to the
formation of either Fe2O3, Fe3O4, or FeO, depending on
the surface temperature of the steel and the ratio of water
vapor pressure to hydrogen pressure in the atmosphere.
 VACUUM HEAT TREATING

The term vacuum

heat processing
refers to heat
treatment processes
in which ferrous and
nonferrous
components are
subjected to the
application of
thermal heat energy
in a vacuum
environment.

A vacuum heat treatment furnace first evacuates a particular

space using vacuum pump, then heats or cools the space.
 ADVANTAGES OF VACUUM HEAT TREATING

• Pieces treated in atmospheric furnaces usually

exhibit a light gray color even in reducing
atmospheres, whereas the surfaces of vacuum
heat-treated components remain bright and shiny.
• Heating an item in a vacuum reduces oxidation.
• Since a vacuum pump evacuates the space as the
item is heated, all gases attached to the item can be
removed.
 TEMPERATURE CONTROL

The desired properties of a metal during a heat

treating process can be achieved by proper
control over the temperature of the furnace. So
its necessary for us to measure the temperature
more correctly.

For the high temperatures met with in heat

treatment furnaces one or other of the
temperature measuring devices known as
pyrometers is required.
Thermocouple pyrometer
This is the most
widely used
temperature
measuring
device for heat
treatment
purposes.

If the junction of two wires made from dissimilar metals (such as a

copper wire and an iron wire) form part of a closed electric circuit
and the junction is heated, an electromotive force (emf ) is
developed whose magnitude and direction depend on the
contacting materials and the temperature difference between the
two points. .
 The presence of this current can be indicated by
a sensitive galvanometer. If the galvanometer is
calibrated in degrees of temperature, we have a
temperature measuring device called a pyrometer.
• The thermocouple probe consists of a
junction of two wires of dissimilar
metals contained within a tube of
refractory metal or of porcelain.
• Porcelain beads are used to insulate
the two wires and locate them in the
sheath as shown
 The radiation pyrometer

• The radiant heat from the furnace or the component being heated in the furnace
is focused onto the thermocouple by a parabolic mirror.
• Furnaces are frequently operated above the required process temperature, and
the work is withdrawn from the furnace when it has reached its correct
temperature as measured by a radiation pyrometer.
 Uses of RADIATION PYROMETER

• Used for large hot components that have been

removed from the furnace.
• Where the furnace temperature is so high it
would damage the thermocouple probe.
• Where the hot component is inaccessible.
• Where the temperature of the component in
the furnace needs to be measured rather than
the temperature of the furnace atmosphere
itself.
 Temperature assessment
There are simpler ways of assessing the approximate
temperature; some of these will now be described.
Paints and crayons
These are applied to the surface of the component to
be heat treated. The mark left on the surface by their
application changes in colour and appearance when
the desired temperature has been reached. The
paints and crayons are available in a range of
compositions to suit the temperature required. They
have the advantage of indicating the temperature of
the component at the point of application.
Ceramic cones
• These are also known as ‘Seger’ cones and may
be conical or pyramidal in shape.
• The ‘cones’ are made with various compositions
so that they soften at different temperatures. It
is usual to choose three cones, one slightly below
the required temperature (cone A), the second at
the required temperature (cone B), and a third
slightly above the required temperature (cone C).
• If the furnace is below the required temperature none
of the cones soften and droop as shown in Fig. (a).

• If the furnace is too hot, all the cones will droop as

shown in Fig. (b).

• If the furnace is at the correct temperature, cone A

will droop a lot, cone B will just start to droop at the
tip, and cone C will be unaffected. This situation is
shown in Fig. (c).

These are some of the Simplest type of techniques

used for temperature assessment.
 ATMOSPHERE CONTROL
Reason for Atmospheric control
When natural gas is burnt in a furnace, excess air is usually
present to ensure complete and efficient combustion. The
resulting products of combustion (flue gases) contain oxygen,
carbon dioxide, sulphur, nitrogen and water vapour. These all
react to a greater or lesser degree with the surface of the
workpiece & will produce heavy scaling .
What is atmospheric control?
Air in the furnace chamber can be replaced by alternative
atmospheres, depending upon the process being performed
and the metal being treated, in order to reduce scaling. This is
known as atmosphere control.
 CARBURIZING WITH GASES
• A process in which carbon is added to the surface layers of
low carbon steels or low alloy steels to a carefully regulated
depth. This addition of carbon is called carburizing.

• Carburizing is achieved by heating the steel at temperatures

in the homogeneous austenite phase field in an environment
of appropriate carbon sources . The carburizing time
depends on the de sired diffusion depth. The processes in
use are classified according to their carbon sources in pack
carburizing (solid compounds), salt bath carburizing (liquid
carbon sources), and gas and plasma carburizing (gaseous
carbon sources).
a) First, the workpiece is
heated to between 900◦C
and 950◦C in contact with
the carburizing
compound until the
additional carbon has
been absorbed to the
required depth.
b) Second, the workpiece is
removed from the
carburizing compound &
reheated to between 780◦C
and 820◦C
After quenching a component from a temperature above 780 ◦C

c) Finally the component is

dipped in cold water for
quenching.
 Carburizing atmosphere
Carburizing depends upon the fact that very
low carbon (0.1%) steels will absorb carbon
when heated to between 900◦C and 950◦C.
Various carbonaceous materials are used in
the carburizing process.
 Solid media
Molten salts
Gaseous media
Solid media such as bone charcoal or charred leather,
together with an energizer such as sodium and/or barium
carbonate. The energizer makes up to 40% of the total
composition.
Molten salts such as sodium cyanide, together with sodium
carbonate and/or barium carbonate and sodium or barium
chloride. Since cyanide is a deadly poison such salts must be
handled with great care and the cyanide makes up only
between 20 and 50% of the total. Stringent safety
precautions must be taken in its use. The components to be

carburized are immersed in the molten salts.

Gaseous media based upon natural gas (methane) are
increasingly used. Methane is a hydrocarbon gas
containing organic carbon compounds that are readily
absorbed into the steel. The methane gas is frequently
enriched by the vapours that are given off when mineral
oils are ‘cracked’ by heating them in contact with the
metal platinum which acts as a catalyst.
 CARBON POTENTIAL MEASUREMENT
(The electrical resistance of steel varies with carbon content)

Apparatus for determination of carbon content by shim-stock

exposure and measurement

Measuring Procedure:
• AISI 1010 steel shim sample is used for measurement. AISI 1010 is a Standard
grade Carbon Steel.
• Clean the shim test specimen with acetone and weigh it on a balance to the
nearest 0.1 mg.
• insert it into the shim holder as shown and Be sure the furnace is operating
above 871 oC.
• Leave the shim specimen in the furnace for 30 min.(Carburizing takes place)
• Move the shim-holder cartridge from the
furnace to the cooling chamber.
• Remove the steel shim from the shim-holder
cartridge.
• Reweigh the shim to the nearest 0.1 mg. And
calculate the carbon potential using:

where wt% C is the original weight percent carbon content.

 Nitriding process
• Nitrogen is diffused into the surface of the
steel being treated.
• The nitrogen source is usually Ammonia (NH3).
At the nitriding temperature the ammonia
dissociates into Nitrogen and Hydrogen.
• Various NITRIDING gas atmosphere are:
Gas nitriding
Salt bath nitriding
Plasma nitriding
 Gas Nitriding process
The reaction of nitrogen with
the steel causes the formation
of very hard iron and alloy
nitrogen compounds.

Nitriding temperature is below the lower critical temperature

of the steel and it is set between 496 oC and 565oC.
 Advantage of this process
• The resulting nitride case is harder than tool
steels or carburized steels.
• The advantage of this process is that hardness
is achieved without the oil, water or air
quench.
• As an added advantage, hardening is
accomplished in a nitrogen atmosphere that
prevents scaling and discoloration.
• The white layer has a detrimental
effect on the fatigue life of nitrided
parts, and it is normally removed
from parts subjected to severe
service. Two stage gas-nitriding
processes can be used to prevent the
formation of white layer

• As the nitriding time increases the

effective case depth also increases
• Carbonitriding: This process involves with the diffusion of

both carbon and nitrogen into the steel surface. Methane or

paropane serve as the source of carbon, the ammonia serves

as the source of nitrogen. Quenching is done in a gas which

is not as severe as water quench. As a result of les severe

quench, there is less distortion on the material to be treated.

 Carbonitriding gives less
distortion than carburizing.
Carbonitriding is performed at
temperatures above the
transformation temperature of
the steels (760 oC -to 870 oC)

The process is performed in a gas atmosphere furnace

using a carburizing gas such as propane or methane

mixed with several percent (by volume) of ammonia.

Salt bath nitriding

• In salt bath nitriding the nitrogen donating medium is a nitrogen

containing salt such as cyanide salt. The salts used also donate

carbon to the workpiece surface making salt bath a

nitrocarburizing process. The temperature used is typical of all

nitrocarburizing processes: 550–590 °C.

The advantages of salt nitriding are:

• Quick processing time - usually in the order of 4 hours or so to
achieve
• Simple operation - heat the salt and workpieces to temperature
and submerge until the duration has expired
The disadvantages of Salt bath nitriding are:
• The salts used are highly toxic - Disposal of
salts are controlled by stringent environmental
laws in western countries and has increased
the costs involved in using salt baths. This is
one of the most significant reasons the process
has fallen out of favor in the last decade or so.

• Only one process possible with a particular salt

type - since the nitrogen potential is set by the
salt, only one type of process is possible
 Plasma nitriding
• Plasma nitriding, also known as ion nitriding, plasma
ion nitriding or glow-discharge nitriding, is an
industrial surface hardening treatment for metallic
materials.
• As an alternative to gas nitriding, plasma (ion)
nitriding process has been developed to overcome
the shortcomings of the earlier traditional
uncontrolled gas nitriding processes and to offer
certain operational advantages that gas nitriding
does not have.
 •The gas used for plasma nitriding is usually
pure nitrogen.
•Electric fields are used to generate ionized
molecules of the gas
•Charged particles are responsible for the
nitriding effect.

This figure shows how the metallurgical

properties of the nitride layer and the white
layer can be controlled in the plasma nitriding
process by adjusting the process gas
composition.
• Plasma is essentially a gas nitriding treatment in which the
method of delivering nitrogen atoms to the surface of nitrided
components is quite different from the standard gas nitriding
processes. It occurs at a very low pressure and under high
voltage.

Plasma offers certain distinct advantages such as:

• The ease of masking the component surface where nitriding is
to be avoided.
 
• Ability to nitride low density powder metallurgy parts.