Pore Pressure,

Fracture Gradient,
Leak Off Test

1
Objectives

What you will learn:

 Pore pressure - normal and abnormal

 Origin of abnormal pressures
 Detection of abnormal pressure
 Overburden pressure & Fracture gradient
 Casing seat depth selection
 Leak-Off Test

2
Pore Pressure Nomenclature

• Pore Pressure is the pressure of the fluids within the

pores of the formation
• Normal Pressure is equivalent to the pressure of a
column of water with a pressure gradient ranging from
0.433 psi/ft (8.3 ppg) to 0.465 psi/ft (8.9 ppg),
depending on the geographical area. Range based on
salinity variation.
• Abnormal Pressure is any pressure above normal
• Subnormal Pressure is any pressure below normal

3
Origin of Abnormal Pressures

• Compaction: Entrapment of pressure due to rapid deposition

of overlying seal not allowing water in pore space to escape
• Uplifting: Formations normally compacted at great depth can
be uplifted to a shallower depth due to tectonic movement.
The original pressure is retained
• Faulting: Deeper fluid pressures in communication with sealed
shallower formations through faults
• Artesian: An outcropping sand is charged with water from a
higher elevation
• Diagenesis: Temperature and pressure causing alterations in
the composition of formations over time

4
Primary Cause of Abnormal Pressure

Compaction Disequilibrium

• As the load on the sediment column increases with burial,

the sediment wants to compact by porosity decrease. The
amount of decrease for unit load depends on sediment
compressibility. Shales, which make-up the majority of the
sediment column, are very compressible.
• In order for porosity to decrease, an equivalent volume of
pore fluid must be displaced (assuming an incompressible
fluid). The rate of fluid displacement depends on the
sediment hydraulic conductivity which is controlled by
permeability. Shales have very low hydraulic conductivity.

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Primary Cause of Abnormal Pressure

Compaction Disequilibrium
• If pore fluid CAN escape fast enough relative to the rate of
loading then:
– Porosity decreases in equilibrium with the increasing load.
– Entire load is supported by a framework grains.
– None of the load is supported by the pore fluid and therefore
the pore fluid pressure remains normal (hydrostatic).
• If pore fluid CAN NOT escape fast enough relative to the rate of
loading, then:
– Porosity decrease is retarded and goes out of equilibrium
with the increasing load.
– Part of the load is now supported by the pore fluid as well as
the framework grains.
– Pore fluid pressure becomes abnormal (greater than
hydrostatic).

6
 Compaction Model

• Load represents the overburden weight of the overlying sediment column.

• Volume of cylinder represents the porosity of
the sediment.
LOAD (Weight) • Spring represents sediment compressibility;
PISTON or the ability of porosity to change with
changing load.
# WATER FILLED
CYLINDER
• Amount of valve opening represents the
hydraulic conductivity of the sediment; or
the ability of fluid to move out of the
sediment as it is compressed.
SPRING
• Gauge displays the amount of pore fluid
GAUGE pressure which depends on:
1. amount of the load (overburden)
VALVE 2. position of the valve (hydraulic
conductivity)
3. stiffness of the spring (sediment
compressibility)

7
Adding Transient Effects

• To make our model closer to reality, it needs to be transient. It

must account for the rate at which parameters will vary with
time. Two important transient rate behaviors are:
– The entire load is not instantaneously applied, but increases
as existing sediment is buried by the deposition of additional
sediment. The rate of load increase is a function of the rate
of sediment deposition.
– The valve opening automatically gets smaller as the volume
of the cylinder decreases. Sediment permeability is a
function of sediment porosity.
• Now the amount of pressure displayed on the gauge depends on
not only the amount of the load but also on how fast the load is
applied relative to how fast the valve moves towards the closed
position.

8
Detection of Abnormal Pressures

Before Drilling:
• Mud weight data from offset wells
• Electric logs of offset wells
• Sonic
• Resistivity
• Bulk Density
• Geological correlation of regional wells
• Geophysical
• Seismic data analysis - Interval Transit Time or
Interval Velocity
• Gravity Surveys - Bulk Density

9
Detection of Abnormal Pressures

During Drilling: Operational Results

• Mud weight required for primary well control
• Background gas, connection gas, trip gas
• Increase in ROP, drilling breaks
• Shape and size of shale cuttings
• Decrease in bulk density of shale
• Loss of circulation

10
Detection of Abnormal Pressures

During Drilling (continued):

• Shut-in drill pipe pressure if a kick is taken

• Change in d-exponent trend
• Increase in chloride concentration
• Increase in flowline temperature
• Increase in torque and drag
• Logging While Drilling (LWD) and analysis of logs
in “real” time.
• Pressure While Drilling (PWD) tool

11
Detection of Abnormal Pressures

After Drilling:
• Electric log analysis – sonic, resistivity, density
• Borehole seismic check shot velocity log
• Pressure measurement with RFT tool
• Drill Stem Tests

13
Overburden Pressures

Overburden pressure at any depth (TVD) is the pressure due to

the combined weight of a segmented column of overlying
sediments and seawater if offshore.

Segmented column Equivalent column of

of multiple densities single density
Air Gap, A
Water
Water Depth, W Density

True Vertical
Depth, TVD
Depth Below
Average
Sea Floor, DBSF
Sediment
Density

Overburden at base Overburden at base

of segmented
= of equivalent column
After Traugott 14
column
 Overburden Pressures

Overburden = [(sw x W) + (avg) x (D-W-A)] / D

where,
sw = density of seawater as an equivalent mud
weight (ppg), typically 8.5 ppg
W = water depth in feet
D = depth of interest (TVD) in feet
A = air gap in feet
DBSF = depth below sea floor = D-W-A
avg = average density of sediments as an equivalent
mud weight (ppg)

15
After Traugott
Overburden Example

Depth of interest = 10,000 ft TVD

Air gap = 75 ft
sw = 8.5 ppg
Water depth = 1,000 ft
avg = 18.2 ppg
then, overburden at depth of interest is:
O = [(8.5x1000) + 18.2(10000 - 1000 - 75)] / 10,000
= 17.1 ppg, or 0.89 psi/ft

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 Overburden Pressures

Common assumption of overburden gradient being equal to

1 psi/ft (19.25 ppg) is valid only at deep TVD and shallow
water depth. For closer results it should be determined
from one or more of the following methods:
•Density logs
•Acoustic derived
•Analytical equation:
avg = 16.3 + [(D-W-A)/3125]0.6

17
After Traugott
Overburden Pressures

For the same TVD, the effect of increasing water

depth is to decrease the resulting overburden.
BULK DENSITY PROFILES AS EQUIVALENT MUD WEIGHT (PPG)
5 10 15 20 25 5 10 15 20 25 5 10 15 20 25 5 10 15 20 25
TRUE VERITCAL
DEPTH

SHELF SLOPE RISE PLAIN

SHELF

PLAIN

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Effect of Water Depth on Overburden Profiles

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Fracture Gradient

Fracture pressure is the pressure necessary to overcome the

formation pore pressure and the strength of the rock matrix.

Its value at a given depth depends on:

• Overburden gradient
• Pore pressure
• Ratio, k, of minimum horizontal and vertical stresses
in the matrix, derived from the Poisson’s ratio

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Effective Stress Relationship

• Fracture pressure equation is derived from effective

stress relationship and k ratio
• σv = O – P , external confining pressure less internal
pore pressure equals the effective stress on the matrix
framework
• k = σh / σv
• Substitute and solve for effective horizontal stress that
must be overcome to fracture the rock.
• σh = k ( O – P )
• Finally, fracture pressure equation is
• F=k(O–P)+P

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 Fracture Gradient

Fracture Gradient Prediction - empirical method, based on Leak

Off data from GOM:
F = (k) x (O - P) + P
k = (0.039) x (D - A - (W/4))0.33 for Soft* rocks
k = 0.33 for Hard rocks
where,
F = fracture gradient in ppg
k = stress ratio
D = TVD in feet
A = air gap in feet
W = water depth in feet
* rocks with acoustic interval transit time ITT or DT > 90 s/foot

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After Traugott
Fracture Gradient

Example:
D = 5,200 feet
Sonic DT = 110 μsec/ft
A = 50 feet
W = 2,000 feet

k = (0.039) x (D - A - (W/4))0.33
k = (0.039) x (5200 - 50- (2000/4))0.33 = 0.63

for P = 8.5 ppg, and O = 13.7 ppg MWE

F = k (O - P) + P
F = 0.63 (13.7 - 8.5) + 8.5 = 11.8 ppg MWE

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 Casing Seat Selection – Operating Mud Wt. Window

EQUIVALENT MUD
EQUIVQLENT MUDWEIGHT
WEIGHT(ppg)
(PPG)
8 8 99 10 11 12 13 14 15
15 16
16 17
17 18 19 20
18 19 20 21
21
00
PORE PRESSURE

1000
1000
PP + TRIP MARGIN • Plot Pore Pressure & Fracture
FRACTURE GRADIENT
FG + SURGE & ECD MARGIN
Gradient equivalent mud weight
2000
2000 profiles.
DEPTH BELOW SEA FLOOR (FEET)
DEPTH BELOW SEA FLOOR (FEET)

3000
3000 • Add mud weight safety margin of
0.5 ppg to pore pressure (trip
4000
4000
margin).
• Subtract mud weight safety margin
5000
5000

6000
6000
of 0.5 ppg from fracture gradient
(ECD & surge margin).
7000
7000

8000
8000

9000
9000

10000
10000
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 Casing Seat Selection

EQUIVALENTMUD
EQUIVQLENT MUD WEIGHT
WEIGHT (PPG)
(ppg)

• Start from bottom (PTD) by

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
0
0
PORE PRESSURE
drawing a vertical line to the
1000
1000
PP + TRIP MARGIN
FRACTURE GRADIENT
fracture gradient (1).
FG + SURGE & ECD MARGIN • Next draw a horizontal line to
the mud weight (2).
2000
2000
(FEET)

3000
3000 • Repeat the process for
subsequent strings of casing
(FEET)
FLOOR

• Make adjustments to select

FLOOR

4000
4000

suitable formation for casing

SEA

(2)
SEA

5000
5000
shoe (competent, low
BELOW
DEPTH BELOW

6000
6000
permeability).
• Final selection may depend on
DEPTH

7000
7000
(1)
actual drilling data if it differs
from prognosis
8000
8000
PROPOSED TD 8500 FT
• Top down design may be
considered for exploration
wells.
9000
9000

10000
10000
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Leak Off Test (LOT)

Purpose:
• To determine the actual integrity (fracture gradient)
of the formation at the casing shoe
• To evaluate the integrity of the cement job
The test may be run to leak off to determine the fracture
gradient of the formation, or as a formation integrity test
(FIT) to a lower pressure which is above the maximum
anticipated mud weight for the next interval by a margin of
safety. FIT’s are generally applicable to development
drilling where fracture gradient is well determined.

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Leak Off Test (LOT)

Before testing:
• Check offset well data for leak-off pressures, pump rates,
shape of plots and anything unusual
• Review electric, MWD and mud logs to identify formation
at the casing shoe - exposed sands may require higher
pump rates, and give a non-linear plot and lower leak off
pressure
• Review the cement job for proper mixing and pumping of
slurry, displacement rates, indications of channeling,
casing centralizers, and loss of returns
• Before drilling out, pressure test casing and plot volume
vs. pressure

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 Equipment Rig up for LOT

Pressure
Gauge
Test
Shut-in Head Purge
Valve Valve

Bleed Drill
Valve Floor

Closed
Drilling BOP
Fluid
Drill
Cementing Pipe
Pump
Displacement
Tank

After Amoco 28
Leak Off Test (LOT)

Procedure:
• Drill out the shoe, clean out rathole and drill 10 to 15 feet
of new hole. Circulate to ensure that the mud weight is
uniform in three consecutive measurements with a
pressurized balance.
• Hang off drill string with the bit approximately 10 feet
inside casing.
• Rig up cement pump, valves and line to drill pipe, and
pressure test.
• Close annular blow out preventer

29
 Leak Off Test (LOT)

Procedure (continued):
• On the chart drawn for the casing
(1) Max. Allowable Pressure
pressure test, draw three horizontal
lines corresponding to
(2) Estimated Min. Volume
LO Pressure (Casing Test Line) • (1) Maximum Allowable Pressure
(Casing Test)
(3) Min. (4) (5) • (2) Estimated LOP
Acceptable
LO Pressure • (3) Minimum acceptable leak off
Pressure

pressure (LOP)
Max. Volume
• (4) Vmin determined from intersection
of minimum volume line from casing
test with Estimated LOP line
• (5) Draw Max. Volume Line from zero
Vmin 2 x Vmin through the intersection of 2 x Vmin
with the Estimated LOP line.

Volume

30
After Amoco
Leak Off Test (LOT)

Procedure (continued):
• Start pumping at a constant rate of 1/4 bbl/min unless
offset well data indicates otherwise.
• Record and plot pressure and volume at 1/4 bbl intervals
• When the slope of the line decreases and pressure is above
the minimum acceptable leak off pressure, pump an
additional 3/4 to 1 bbl and stop

31
Leak Off Test (LOT)

Procedure (continued):
• If slope decrease occurs below minimum acceptable leak
off pressure, pump one or two more barrels to see if
pressure will resume building. If it does, continue to pump
at the uniform rate as before, if not, stop.
• Stop immediately if the pressure abruptly drops while
pumping as it could indicate a hard breakdown
• Draw a best fit line, mark the point where there is a
permanent decrease in slope, and read the corresponding
pressure (LOP)

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 Leak Off Test Guidelines

Max. Allowable Pressure

X Acceptable
Estimated
LO Pressure

Min. Acceptable Unacceptable: Never developed

X
LO Pressure straight line. Try slightly higher pump
X
rate.
Pressure

X Acceptable

Unacceptable

Volume

After Amoco
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Leak Off Test Interpretation

• Record MD, TVD, Azimuth and Inclination at the shoe, pump rate,
volume pumped, volume recovered, casing size, and mud properties.
• Compute the equivalent mud weight for the leak off pressure
• EMW at leak off = MW + [LOP / (0.052 x TVD)]
Example: MW used = 9.6 ppg
LOP achieved = 750 psi
CSG shoe depth = 8000 feet TVD
LOT EMW = 9.6 + [ 750 / (0.052 x 8000)] = 11.4
• Always retest BEFORE deciding to squeeze the shoe.

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