Chapter 14

Statistical Process Control

P i r z a d a
Statistical Process Control

Statistical Process Control

A methodology for monitoring a process to identify special
causes of variation and signaling the need to take corrective
action when appropriate.

If the variation in the process is due to common cause alone, the

process is said to be in statistical control.
Statistical Process Control

Statistical process control (SPC) is the application of

statistical methods to the monitoring and control of a process
to ensure that it operates at its full potential to produce
conforming product. Under SPC, a process behaves
predictably to produce as much conforming product as
possible with the least possible waste. While SPC has been
applied most frequently to controlling manufacturing lines, it
applies equally well to any process with a measurable output.
Key tools in SPC are control charts, a focus on continuous
improvement and designed experiments.

Wikipedia
SPC
Control Chart Applications in Service Organizations

Organization Quality Measure

Hospital Lab test accuracy, Insurance claim accuracy
Bank Check-processing accuracy
Insurance company Claim-processing response time, Billing accuracy
Post office Sorting accuracy, Time of delivery, % mail delivered in
time
Ambulance Response time
Police Department Incidence of crime, No. of traffic citations
Hotel Proportion of rooms cleaned, No. of complaints
Transportation Proportion of freight cars correctly routed
Auto service % job completed as promised, % parts out of stock
Capability and Control

The Process Capability

Expressed as a process capability index, Cpk ( also Cpm), that
predict how many parts will be produced out of specification
(OOS).

Process capability is also defined as the capability of a process to

meet its purpose as managed by an organization's management
and process definition structures.

Table 14.2, Page 691

Capability and Control
The Control
A phenomenon will be said to be controlled when, we can
predict, at least within limits, how the phenomenon may be
expected to vary in the future, i.e. we can state, at least
approximately, the probability that the observed phenomenon
will fall within the given limits.

 Control is not the complete absence of variation.

 Variation is predictable. Process mean and variance are
constant over time.
 Not necessarily a sign of good management,

Shewhart
Control and Capability
Two different concepts

 The issue of control should

be addressed first

 Then attack the common In control Out of control

causes to improve its
Capable
capability Ideal

Not
capable
Statistical Process Control

Features of SPC
 Relies on control charts
 An evidence of quality capability
 Ineffective for approaching six sigma
 Good for early stages of quality enhancement
Statistical Process Control
Quality Control Measurements
Two types of indicators

Attribute
A characteristic either present or ascent, (e.g. within
tolerance or not). Usually easier data collection
Measure of conformance.

Variables
Continuous data, (e.g. length or weight).
Measure of degree of conformance.
SPC Methodology - I

Preparation 1. Identify variables to be measured

2. Decide basis, size & frequency of sampling
3. Set-up control chart
Data Collection 1. Record the data
2. Calculate, averages, ranges, proportions etc
3. Plot charts
Control Limits 1. Draw central line (process average)
2. Compute upper & lower control limits
SPC Methodology - II

Analysis and 1. Choose measurable attributes

interpretation 2. Determine basis, size and frequency of
sampling
3. Set-up control chart

Using as problem- 1. Continue data collection & plotting

solving tool 2. Identify out of control situations

Process capability 1. Determine Process capability using

evaluation. control chart data.
Theory of SPC
Assumptions for the Criteria

1.Distribution of sample means is normal

- (Central limit theorem)
2. The UCLA and LCL are + 3σ around mean. ( ~ 99.1% values)
3. The normal distribution being symmetric , (mean is median)
dispersion around mean is also symmetric.
4. As ~ 68% values are within + σ, most values are close to
center line.
Statistical Process Control
Control Charts

Constructing Charts

1. 25-30 samples of 3-10 measurements are collected

2. Is samples fall out of CL, special causes exist. The process is
non-representative of SPC. Eliminate bias, recalculation needed.
3. R-charts are analyzed first. Why?

Follow example discussed on page 695

Control Charts
Control Chart for Variable Data
Variable data are those measured along a continuous scale.
Most commonly represented by x-bar charts and R- charts
X-bar charts monitor the centering of the process
R-charts measure the monitoring of the variation
Standard deviations are better measure of variability.
Interpreting Patterns
One Point Outside Control Limit

Causes
Special cause _
 Error in estimation ofx or R

- Check Calculations
By chance

Power surge - Broken tool – Incomplete process

Fig 14.11; Page 703
SPC

Criteria for Statistical Control Process

1. No points are outside control limits.

2. The number of points above and below the center line as about
the same.
3. The points seem to fall randomly above and below the center
line.
4. Most points, but not all, are near the center line, and only a
few are close to the control limits.
Interpreting Patterns
Sudden Shift in the _Process Average
- in x or R-charts
Special Cause
 Process average suddenly shifted
- External factors

New operator – New machine setting - New setup

Fig 14.12; Page 703

Interpreting Patterns
Cycles
Short repeated patterns

Operator rotation – fatigue – different tool –

time effects

Fig 14.14 ; Page 705

Interpreting Patterns
Trends
Gradual effect of a cause
A New group of operator – dirt/ chip buildup -
– tool wear – aging of equipment

Decline in material
quality or tool

R-chart

Improved skill,
materials etc. Fig 14.15; Page 705
Interpreting Patterns
Hugging the Control Limits- Mixture

 Combination of two pattern

Different lot of materials or machines

Can split in two separate patterns

Fig 14.17; Page 707

Fig 14.17; Page 707
Interpreting Patterns

Hugging the Center Line

 Control limits too wide

 Systematic error in sample
 Miscalculation of control limits

Fig 14.15; Page 705

Interpreting Patterns
Instability

 Unnatural and erratic fluctuations

 Usually on both sides and outside limits
Difficult to identify, over adjustment

Fig 14.19; Page 708

SPC
Process Monitoring & Control

Used to monitor performance and

identify special causes.
Control charts
Employees running the process use indicate when to
these charts. take action and
They should be involved and trained when to leave a
Revisions can be made to improve process alone.
process capability.
X-bar Charts &
R- Charts
 Statistical Process Control
Estimating UCL and LCL
The constants
_
A2, D3 and D4
xi : mean depend on the
 sample size.
x : overall mean
Values are
R : range given in
 Appendix B,
R : average range Page A-3
Statistical Process Control
Constructing X and R-charts


_
_ UCLR  D 4 R
  xi
x
_
LCLR  D 3 R
k  _
_
Ri UCL_  x  A2 R
R x

k LCL_  x  A2 R
_

x
Silicon Wafer Example No. Data Avg. Range
1 41 70 22 44 48
Page 698 Evans 2 78 53 68 66 25
3 84 34 48 55 50
4 60 36 25 40 35
5 46 47 29 41 18
6 64 16 56 45 48
7 43 53 64 53 21
8 37 43 30 37 13
9 50 29 57 45 28
10 57 83 32 57 51
11 24 42 39 35 18
12 78 48 39 55 39
13 51 57 50 53 7
14 41 29 35 35 12
15 56 64 36 52 28
16 46 41 16 34 30
17 99 86 98 94 13
18 71 54 39 55 32
19 41 2 53 32 51
20 41 39 36 39 5
21 22 40 46 36 24
22 62 70 46 59 24
23 64 52 57 58 12
24 44 38 60 47 22
25 41 63 62 55 22

Avg. 49 27
Silicon Wafer Example
Page 698 Evans
 R
R  27
k

 x
X  48.8
k


From Appendix B of
A2 R  1.023.(27)  27.6
the Text book, the  
values of UCLx  X  A2 R
coefficients for n=3  
(sample size) are: LCLx  X  A2 R

A2 = 1.023
D3 = 0 UCLR  D4 R  2.574.(27)  69.5
D4 = 2.574 
LCLR  D3 R  0.(27)  0
 Variable Control R-Chart

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
 Variable Control Chart X-bar

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
 Variable Control Chart X-bar & R
100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
 Variable Control Chart R (after removing #17)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
 Variable Control Chart X-bar (after removing #17)
80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
 Variable Control Chart X-bar & R ( after removing #17)
80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Statistical Process Control
Modified Control Limits

For processes having better process capability

_
Lower Reject level
LRL x  LS  Am R
_
Upper Reject level
URLx  US  Am R
Values of Am from ASQ sheet
SPC
Modified Control Limits
Special Control Charts

x-bar and s-charts

Sample St. Dev. (s) as alternative to R

Construction:
 Compute s for individual samples
 Find s-bar (Mean of all s values)
 Find UCLS and LCLS using B3 and B4
 For x-bar chart use A3

Values of A3, B3 and B4 from Appendix B

X-bar S-Chart: Mechanical Part Example
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Avg. St. Dv.
1 8 6 9 7 9 2 7 9 7 6.5 2.838
9 4 0 3 0 0 3 4 8 3 3.4 3.134
0 8 0 0 3 1 2 0 2 3 1.9 2.470
1 1 0 2 1 1 2 0 0 1 0.9 0.738
-3 -1 0 -4 0 1 0 -2 0 -2 -1.1 1.595
-6 2 0 0 2 -1 2 0 -3 0 -0.4 2.503
-3 -1 0 -2 -1 -1 -3 0 -2 -2 -1.5 1.080
0 -2 -3 -1 -2 1 -3 0 -3 -2 -1.5 1.434
2 0 -1 -1 -3 0 1 -3 -1 0 -0.6 1.578
0 0 -2 -1 -1 0 -1 -2 -2 0 -0.9 0.876
-3 -2 2 -1 1 -2 -2 -1 1 1 -0.6 1.713
-12 2 0 -4 -1 4 2 -3 -4 0 -1.6 4.526
-6 -3 0 0 -8 -4 -6 -1 -1 -2 -3.1 2.807
-3 -5 5 0 -5 1 5 -4 -1 -5 -1.2 3.910
-1 -1 -1 -2 -1 0 -2 -1 0 -1 -1 0.667
-1 -2 -2 0 -4 0 -2 -4 -1 0 -1.6 1.506
-2 2 -1 0 -1 -1 2 -1 1 -2 -0.3 1.494
0 4 0 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0.8 1.476
0 3 -3 3 3 1 0 1 2 -2 0.8 2.098
1 2 1 1 -3 2 1 -2 3 0 0.6 1.838
1 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1.5 0.527
-1 0 2 -1 2 2 -1 0 0 -1 0.2 1.317
0 0 -1 0 1 0 0 0 -1 0 -0.1 0.568
1 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 -1 0 0.4 0.843
2 2 1 2 -1 2 2 1 -1 2 1.2 1.229
X-bar S chart
Mechanical Part Example

No. of samples: 25
Sample size: 10
Grand Average: 0.18

Average St. Dev. 1.7905259

A3: 0.98
B3: 0.28
B4: 1.72
d2: 3.08

For X-bar chart

Center*: 0.18
LCL: -1.64
UCL: 1.854
X-bar S chart
Mechanical Part Example

No. of samples: 25
Sample size: 10
Grand Average: 0.18

Average St. Dev. 1.7905259

A3: 0.98
B3: 0.28
B4: 1.72
d2: 3.08

For S chart

Center*: 1.791
LCL: -1.64
UCL: 3.073
 X-bar Chart
mechanical part example

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

-2

-4
S-Chart
mechanical part example

5.000

4.000

3.000

2.000

1.000

0.000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

-1.000

-2.000
SPC
Estimating Process Capability

A quick formula:

St. Dev. = Average range/ sample size dependent constant

 _
  R/ d 2
Process Capability = 6 times St. Dev.
Special Control Charts
x-charts (for individuals)
 For automated inspections: n = 1
- Shipments, Temperature, pressure humidity etc.

Does not provide enough process variability information

 The concept of moving range is used.
 Points beyond limit indicate special causes.
 Successive ranges are correlated, may cause trend, and not
necessarily an out-of-control process. Page 716
 Successive averages are uncorrelated, patterns need to be
investigated.
x-Charts (Moving range)

Construction

 Find moving range, and average range (R-bar)

Use D3 and D4 to compute limits. Check R-chart
 Find average (x-bar).
 Find limits construct as x-bar + 3 R/d2
x-Charts (Moving range)
Mov Range
1 3.75 2.562 3.498 4.4344
2 3.8 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.05 0 0.35 1.15
3 3.7 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.1 0 0.35 1.15
4 3.2 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.5 0 0.35 1.15
5 3.5 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.3 0 0.35 1.15
6 3.05 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.45 0 0.35 1.15
7 3.5 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.45 0 0.35 1.15
8 3.25 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.25 0 0.35 1.15
9 3.6 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.35 0 0.35 1.15
10 3.1 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.5 0 0.35 1.15
11 4 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.9 0 0.35 1.15
12 4 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0 0 0.35 1.15
13 3.5 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.5 0 0.35 1.15
14 3 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.5 0 0.35 1.15
15 3.8 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.8 0 0.35 1.15
16 3.4 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.4 0 0.35 1.15
17 3.6 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.2 0 0.35 1.15
18 3.1 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.5 0 0.35 1.15
19 3.55 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.45 0 0.35 1.15
20 3.65 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.1 0 0.35 1.15
21 3.45 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.2 0 0.35 1.15
22 3.3 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.15 0 0.35 1.15
23 3.75 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.45 0 0.35 1.15
24 3.5 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.25 0 0.35 1.15
25 3.4 2.562 3.498 4.4344 0.1 0 0.35 1.15
x-Charts (Moving range)

4.5

3.5

2.5

2
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
 x-Charts (Moving range)

1.25

0.75

0.5

0.25

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Attribute Control Charts

Fraction nonconforming (p) charts)

Difficult to measure attributes, good-bad, pass fail,
n: sample size
Construction y: no. non-conforming
 Take 25-30 samples. p : fraction nonconforming
 Large enough sample =y/n
to have several defect
 UCL, LCL p-bar + 3s p-bar = average p
s (p-bar) =
Sqrt [p-bar (1-p-bar)/ n]
Page 722
p-Charts
1 3 100 0.03 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
2 1 100 0.01 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
3 0 100 0 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
4 0 100 0 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
5 2 100 0.02 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
6 5 100 0.05 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
7 3 100 0.03 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
8 6 100 0.06 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
9 1 100 0.01 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
10 4 100 0.04 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
11 0 100 0 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
12 2 100 0.02 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
13 1 100 0.01 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
14 3 100 0.03 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
15 4 100 0.04 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
16 1 100 0.01 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
17 1 100 0.01 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
18 2 100 0.02 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
19 5 100 0.05 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
20 2 100 0.02 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
21 3 100 0.03 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
22 4 100 0.04 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
23 1 100 0.01 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
24 0 100 0 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
25 1 100 0.01 0.01467 0 0.022 0.066
Attribute Control Charts

Variable Sample Size

,

Construction
 Similar procedure as for fixed sample size.
 As sample size (n) varies limits vary.

Page 726
Attribute Control Charts
Number nonconforming (np) charts)
Sample size must be constant.

Page 728
Chart for defects
Defect: non-conforming characteristic

c-chart: Average number of defects/ unit

Sample size constant

u-chart: total number of defects/ unit

Sample size constant
Page 722
Attribute Control Charts
Average no of defects (c) chart
Defect: non-conforming characteristic

 c-chart: Total number of defects/ unit

 Sample size constant
 Follows Poisson distribution (s = Sqrt (average)

Page 730, Fig. 14.35, Fig 14.36

 u-chart: Average number of defects/ unit

 Sample size variable.

Page 733-4, Fig. 14.37, Fig 14.38

Quality Rating System

Rating the defects

A: Very serious Demerits: 100

B: Serious Demerits: 50
C: Moderately serious Demerits: 10
D: Not serious Demerits: 1
SPC

Excel Spreadsheet Templates

Home Work 3

No.1

In designing the control chart what is the significance of

basis, size and frequency of sampling.

No. 2

Compare Type 1 errors with Type 2 errors.

Due date: April 26, 2010