The Cell Cycle

&
Cell Division
A New Cell Is Born

Mitosis and Meiosis

HEBRA  horse + zebra
Why?
How?
CELL DIVISION
 Cell division is a fundamental process
• All cells come from pre-existing cells
• It is necessary to replace worn out cells in
multicellular organisms
• It is required for growth in multicellular organisms
– An increase in size will require an increase in surface area
to volume ration
– Cell division subdivides the cytoplasm into small units
(cells) surrounded by plasma membranes
• It is necessary for reproduction in unicellular or
multicellular organisms
 Prokaryotes

• Prokaryotes have no
nucleus
• They have a single
circular chromosome
• Prokaryotes simply
divide their cells in
two by binary fission
 Eukaryotes
• Eukaryotes must divide their nucleus (and
other organelles such as mitochondria) in
preparation for cell division (mitosis or
meiosis)
• Before the nucleus divides the genetic
material replicates (duplicates)
Why is understanding cell division
critically important?
LIFE DEATH
 Mitosis

• Mitotic division
results in genetically
identical eukaryotic
cells (a clone)
• Mitosis is the basis of
asexual reproduction
 Meiosis
• Meiosis results in a halving of the
chromosome number in preparation for
fertilisation
• Meiosis shuffles genes in new combinations
• Meiosis results in genetically different cells
• Meiosis and fertilisation are the basis of
sexual reproduction
 The Cell Cycle

http://www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/2001/press.html
MITOSIS
 Mitosis
• The process of cell division which
results in the production of two
daughter cells from a single parent
cell.
• The daughter cells are identical to
one another and to the original parent
cell.
 Mitosis can be divided into stages
• Interphase  G1, S, G2
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase & Cytokinesis
 Before Mitosis
• 23 homologous pairs of
chromosomes (actually they
are still in the form of
invisible chromatin threads).
One member of the pair is
from the father and the other
is from the mother
• Each chromosome is in the
monad form (that is, only one
copy—the original
Cell nucleus • Homologous same length,
carrying similar gene loci
Human chromosomes
Interphase G1
• Cell grows in size
• Organelles in the
cell multiply
• Chromatins
remain the same
and invisible
• The cell is in the
brake mode
Interphase S
• Mitosis promoting
factor (MPF) triggers
cell division
• DNA replicates
• Chromatins are
doubled
• Each chromatin has an
identical sister, called
sister chromatid
• Chromatins remain the
same and invisible
Interphase G2
• Nutrients, proteins
and enzymes for cell
division are
produced in full
swing
• Chromatins remain
the same and
invisible
 Interphase
Animal Cell Plant Cell
 Prophase
centrosome • Chromatins condense
and thicken to become
chromosomes in the
dyad form.
• nuclear envelope starts
to disappear
• spindles form
• centrosomes move to
opposite ends of the
cell
Metaphase
• Chromosomes are lined
up on cell equator,
attached to the spindle
at the centromeres
• Chromosomes are most
tightly condensed at
this stage.
Anaphase
• centromeres break.
Now chromosomes
are monads
• the monad
chromosomes are
pulled to opposite
poles by the spindle.
 • nuclear envelope
Telophase re-forms
• spindle vanishes
• Cleavage formed
Cytokinesis
• cytokinesis:
cytoplasm
divided into 2
separate cells
•
chromosomes
de-condense
 Prophase
Animal Cell Plant Cell

Photographs from: http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/biol1110/Stages.htm

 Metaphase
Animal Cell Plant Cell
 Anaphase
Animal Cell Plant Cell

Photographs from: http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/biol1110/Stages.htm

 Telophase
Animal Cell Plant Cell
Animal Mitosis
Interphase Prophase

Metaphase Anaphase

Telophase Interphase
Plant Mitosis -- Review
Interphase Prophase

Metaphase Anaphase

Telophase Interphase
MEIOSIS
 Meiosis
• Meiosis is the type of cell division by which gametes (eggs and
sperm) are produced from germ body cells (the parent cell).
• One parent cell produces four daughter cells
• Daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes found in the
original parent cell. That means, daughter cells are haploids
• Meiosis has two divisions or cycles. Nucleus divides in each cycle.
But the DNA replicates once only, and that is in the first cycle or
division
• The most crucial part of meiosis happens in Prophase of the first
cycle (or prophase 1) where cross-over and independent
assortment happen. Here genes are jumbled and exchanged.
• Cross-over and independent assortment give rise to the variety we
observe in nature
 Meiosis

Four stages can be described for each

division/cycle of the nucleus.
 Meiosis I
First division of meiosis
 Before Meiosis • 23 homologous pairs of
chromosomes (actually they
inside a Germ Cell are still in the form of
invisible chromatin threads).
One member of the pair is
from the father and the
other is from the mother
• Each chromosome is in the
monad form (that is, there’s
only one copy--the original
one)
• Homologous same
Cell nucleus length, carrying similar gene
loci
Human chromosomes
Interphase G1
• Cell grows in size
• Organelles in the
cell multiply
• Chromatins
remain the same
and invisible
• The cell is in the
brake mode
Interphase S
• Mitosis promoting
factor (MPF) triggers
cell division
• DNA replicates
• Chromatins are
doubled through DNA
replication
• Each chromatin now
has an identical sister,
called sister chromatid
• Chromatins remain the
same and invisible
Interphase G2
• Nutrients, proteins
and enzymes for cell
division are
produced in full
swing
• Chromatins remain
the same and
invisible
Prophase of the
• Chromatins condense and
1st cycle thicken to become
chromosomes in the dyad form
(Prophase 1) (the siamese twin version of the
original chromosome and its
copy)
• Dyad form of homologous
chromosomes and their
respective copies join together
to form tetrad
• Here is where cross-over and
independent assortment of
genes take place
• nuclear envelope starts to
disappear
• spindles form
• centrosomes move to opposite
ends of the cell
Metaphase 1 of • Chromosomes in tetrad
form (that is, two dyad
the 1st cycle forms—the 2 homologous
chromosomes and their
respective copy) linked
together are lined up on cell
equator, attached to the
spindle at the centromeres
• Spindles are attached to the
centromeres of each dyad
unit
Anaphase 1 of • Chromosome pairs
separate, with sister
the 1st cycle chromatids (the original and
its copy) still together.
• Chromosomes are still in the
dyad form, but both sister
chromatids may already be
carrying shuffled genes
Telophase 1 of
the 1st cycle • nuclear envelope re-forms
• spindle vanishes
• Cleavage formed
• Chromosomes being pulled
are in the dyad form
Cytokinesis of
• cytokinesis: cytoplasm
the 1st cycle divided into 2 separate cells
• Each chromosome is in the
dyad form, but may already
be carrying shuffled genes.
Cycle 2 of Meiosis
Prophase of the • nuclear
envelope starts
2st cycle to disappear
(Prophase 2) • spindles form
• centrosomes
move to
opposite ends
of the cell
Metaphase of • Chromosomes
the 2st cycle are lined up on
cell equator,
(Metaphase 2) attached to the
spindle at the
centromeres

1st cell 2nd cell

B, B, R R, R, B
Anaphase 2 of • Chromosomes in dyad form
break and separate into
the 2st cycle their respective single units
(monad form)
• Chromosomes are now in
single units. But they are
now carrying shuffled genes
Telophase of • First cell
• nuclear envelope
Cycle 2 re-forms
• spindle vanishes
(Telophase 2) • Cleavage formed
• But take note
that only half of
the total
chromosomes
are present
• Chromosomes
are in the monad
form
1st cell

B, B, R B, B, R
Telophase of • 2nd cell
• nuclear envelope
Cycle 2 re-forms
• spindle vanishes
(Telophase 2) • Cleavage formed
• But take note
that only half of
the total
chromosomes
are present
• Chromosomes
are in the monad
form

2nd cell
R, R, B R, R, B
Cytokinesis of the 1st cell
• Two daughter cells
in cycle 2 formed from the
first cell
(Telophase/cytokinesis 2) • cytokinesis:
cytoplasm divided
into 2 separate
cells
• Only half of the
total
chromosomes are
present
• We started with 6
chromosomes
(prophase 1) and
we ended with 3
chromosomes
B, B, R B, B, R (telophase 2)
2 daughter cells of the 1st cell
 Cytokinesis of the 2nd
• Two daughter cells
cell in cycle 2 formed from the
second cell
(Telophase/cytokinesis 2) • cytokinesis:
cytoplasm divided
into 2 separate
cells
• Only half of the
total
chromosomes are
present
• We started with 6
chromosomes
(prophase 1) and
we ended with 3
R, R, B R, R, B
chromosomes
2 daughter cells of the 2nd cell (telophase 2)
 Chromosomal mutations
• Are caused by:
– Changes in chromosomal number
• Non-disjunction of chromosome
– the members of a pair of homologous chromosome that form
tetrad did not separate
– Sister chromatids fail to separate
• Examples: aneuploidy and polyploidy
– Changes in chromosomal structure
• Chromosomes can break, leading to several
rearrangement
• Fragments without centromeres are usually lost
• Some fragments may join the homologous
chromosome of their respective original chromosome
 Chromosomal mutations
• May happen in both mitosis and meiosis
• In mitosis, only some cells are affected, and
they eventually die without affecting the
organism
• In meiosis, the whole organism is affected.
The whole organism may die.
 EXAMPLES OF Telophase of
CHROMOSOMAL Cycle 2
MUTUTATION (Telophase 2)

• The dyad form of

one chromosome
is not broken (that
is, sister
chromatids are
not separated)
 • Aneuploidy 
Aneuploidy abnormal number of
chromosomes
This one has 1 extra This one has 1 less • Down syndrome 
chromosome ( 24 chromosome ( 22
one example of
in humans) in humans)
aneuploidy in
chromosome # 21,
which is trisomic in
character
• 1 per 700 develops
down syndrome
• Palau syndrome 
trisomy at
chromosome # 13
• Edward syndrome 
Will form Will form trisomy at
trisomy monosomy chromosome # 18
 • Aneuploidy 
Trisomy formation abnormal number of
chromosomes
This one has 1 extra • Down syndrome 
This one has normal #
chromosome ( 24 of chromosomes (
one example of
in human gamete) 23 in human gamete)
aneuploidy in
chromosome # 21,
which is trisomic in
character
• 1 per 700 develops
down syndrome
• Palau syndrome 
trisomy at
chromosome # 13
• Edward syndrome 
Will form trisomy at
trisomy chromosome # 18
 • Aneuploidy 
Monosomy formation abnormal number of
chromosomes
This one has normal This one has 1 less • Down syndrome 
# of chromosomes chromosome ( 22
( 23 in human one example of
in human gametes)
gametes) aneuploidy in
chromosome # 21,
which is trisomic in
character
• 1 per 700 develops
down syndrome
• Palau syndrome 
trisomy at
chromosome # 13
• Edward syndrome 
Will form
monosomy
trisomy at
chromosome # 18
 Aneuploidy in sex chromosomes
• Sex chromosome trisomy
– XXY (Klinefelter)  have male sex organs but sterile, the testes are
abnormally small, often leads to breast enlargement and other
feminine contours. Usually of normal intelligence
– XYY  males, somewhat taller than average. No well defined
syndrome
– XXX (metafemales)  limited fertility and may be mentally retarded
• Sex chromosome monosomy
– XO (turner syndrome)  female but their sex organs do not mature at
adolescence. Secondary sexual characteristics fail to develop. Sterile
and short. Usually no mental deficiency.
 Polyploidy
• Polyploidy  more than two complete set of
chromosomes
– Triploids  with 3 sets of chromosomes
– Tetraploids  with 4 sets of chromosomes
• Polyploids are extremely rare in humans but
are common in plants like seedless fruits
Metaphase 1 of • Chromosomes in tetrad
form (that is, two dyad
the 1st cycle forms—the 2 homologous
chromosomes and their
respective copy) linked
together are lined up on cell
equator, attached to the
spindle at the centromeres
Anaphase 1 of • Tetrad chromosome pairs
did not separate
the 1st cycle • Chromosomes are still in the
tetrad form
Telophase 1 of
the 1st cycle • nuclear envelope re-forms
• spindle vanishes
• Cleavage formed
• Chromosomes are still in the
tetrad form
Metaphase 1 of • Chromosomes in tetrad
form (that is, two dyad
the 1st cycle forms—the 2 homologous
chromosomes and their
respective copy) linked
together are lined up on cell
equator, attached to the
spindle at the centromeres
Anaphase 1 of • Only one pair of the two
sets of Chromosome
the 1st cycle separates,
Telophase 1 of
the 1st cycle
 Differences in Mitosis & Meiosis

• Mitosis • Meiosis
– Asexual – Sexual
– Cell divides once – Cell divides twice
– Two daughter cells – Four haploid daughter
– Genetic information is cells
identical – Genetic information is
different
 What happens to the 4 new cells
produced by meiosis?
• In males
– They all become sperm cells
• In females
– Only one becomes egg cell. The rest become
polar bodies and die a natural death
• In plants
– They develop into spores