Chap 1.

An Introduction to
Electrical Engineering

Jean de Dieu IYAKAREMYE

3/31/2018
October, 2015 1
 Overview

-Brief history, disciplines, curriculum

-Review of electrical principles

Lecturer: Jean de Dieu IYAKAREMYE, Msc

Book: Electricity for Agriculture
(Available in the Library)

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 Assignments and CAT
20/10/2015 Homework 1,
22/10/2015 , Assignment

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 What is electrical engineering?

The study of ELECTRICITY along with its

numerous applications

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 A brief history
In 1600, William Gilbert called
the property of attracting
particles after being rubbed
“electricus”.

De Magnete was a treatise of

electricity and magnetism,
noting a long list of elements
that could be electrified.

Gilbert invented the versorium,

a device that detected
statically-charged bodies

William Gilbert, arguably the first electrical engineer

3/31/2018 A versorium 5
 A brief history
1800 – voltaic pile developed by Alessandro
Volta, a precursor to the battery

Voltaic pile

1831 – Michael Faraday discovers

electromagnetic induction

Circuits containing inductors

1873 – Electricity and Magnetism

published by James Maxwell, describing
a theory for electromagnetism
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Maxwell’s equations
 A brief history
1888 – Heinrich Hertz transmits and
receives radio signals

Spark-gap transmitter

1941 – Konrad Zuse introduces the first

ever programmable computer

Z3 computer

1947 – invention of transistor

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Transistor
 A brief history
1958 – integrated circuit
developed by Jack Kilby

Integrated circuits

1968 – first microprocessor is

developed

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Microprocessor
 So where is the field now?

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 Fields of study
Power:
Creation, storage, and distribution of electricity

Control:
Design of dynamic systems and controllers for the
systems

Electronics/Microelectronics:
Design of integrated circuits, microprocessors, etc.

Signal Processing: Analysis of signals

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 Fields of study
Telecommunications:
Design of transmission systems (voice, data)

Computer:
Design and development of computer systems

Instrumentation:
Design of sensors and data acquisition equipment

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 Basic concepts

✴ Electricity
✴ Charge
✴ Current
✴ Voltage
✴ Power and Energy

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 Electricity

Physical phenomenon arising from the

existence and interactions of electric charge

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 Charge

Where can we observe/experience/use charge?

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 Charge
Characteristic property of subatomic
particles responsible for electric phenomena

Electron
- + Proton

−1.602×10−19 C 1.602×10−19 C

The unit of quantity of electric charge is coloumb (C)

1 coulomb = 6.25 × 1018 e

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e = elementary charge = charge of proton 15
 Charge
“Charged” particles exhibit forces

- -
Like charges repel each other

- +
Opposite charges attract one another

Charge is the source of one of the fundamental forces in nature (others?)

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 Coulomb’s Law

q1 q2
r (meters)

(Newtons)

F1,2 is the electrostatic force exerted on charge 1 due

to the presence of charge 2

ke is the Coulomb constant ke = 8.987 x 109 N*m2*C-2

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 Electric current

Describes charge in motion, the flow of charge

This phenomenon can result from moving electrons in a

conductive material or moving ions in charged solutions

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 Electric current

An ampere (A) is the number of electrons having a total

charge of 1 C moving through a given cross section in 1 s.
n=Q/e , where n=number of electrons, e= -1.6x10exp-19

As defined, current flows in direction of positive charge flow

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 Electrical Circuits

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 Electric circuit
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements
linked together in a closed path so that electric current may
flow continuously

Circuit diagrams are the standard for electrical engineers

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 Rate of flow of charge form node a to node b

Rate of flow of charge form node b to node a

(i = current)

A direct current (dc) is a current of constant magnitude

An alternating current (ac) is a current of varying

magnitude and direction
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 Voltage
Driving “force” of electrical current between two points

Vab Voltage at terminal a with respect to terminal b

Vba Voltage at terminal b with respect to terminal a

Vab = -Vba
Note: In a circuit, voltage is often defined relative to
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 Voltage
The voltage across an element is the work (energy) required to move a
-
unit of positive charge from the “ ” terminal to the “+” terminal

A volt is the potential difference (voltage) between

two points when 1 joule of energy is used to move 1
coulomb of charge from one point to the other

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 Power
The rate at which energy is converted or work is performed

A watt results when 1 joule of energy is converted or used in 1 second

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 Circuit schematic example

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 Circuit elements

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 Resistors
Resistance (R) is the physical
property of an element that
impedes the flow of current . The
units of resistance are Ohms (Ω)

Resistivity (ρ) is the ability of a

material to resist current flow. The
units of resistivity are Ohm-meters
(Ω-m)
Example:

Resistivity of copper 1.68×10−8 Ω·m

3/31/2018 Resistivity of glass 1010 to 101428Ω·m
 Resistors

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 Resistors

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 Ohm’s Law

(remember, R is in Ω
and ρ is in Ω-m)

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 Resistance and temperature

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 Capacitors

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 Capacitors
A capacitor consists of a pair of
conductors separated by a
dielectric (insulator).

(ε indicates how penetrable a subtance is to an

electric field)

Electric charge is stored in the plates

– a capacitor can become “charged”

When a voltage exists across the conductors,

it provides the energy to move the charge
3/31/2018 from the positive plate to the other plate.
34
 Capacitors
Capacitance (C) is the ability of a material to store charge in the
form of separated charge or an electric field. It is the ratio of
charge stored to voltage difference between two plates.

Capacitance is measured in Farads (F)

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 Capacitors
The capacitor plate attached to the negative
terminal accepts electrons from the battery.

The capacitor plate attached to the positive

terminal accepts protons from the battery.

What happens when the light bulb is

initially connected in the circuit?

What happens if you replace the battery

with a piece of wire?

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 Energy storage

Work must be done by an external influence (e.g. a battery) to

separate charge between the plates in a capacitor. The charge is
stored in the capacitor until the external influence is removed and
the separated charge is given a path to travel and dissipate.

Work exerted to charge a capacitor is given by the equation:

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 Inductors

An inductor is a two terminal element

consisting of a winding of N turns capable
of storing energy in the form of a magnetic
field

Inductance (L) is a measure of the ability of

a device to store energy in the form of a
magnetic field. It is measured in Henries (H)

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 Inductors

Inductance in a cylindrical coil

μ0 = permeability of free space = 4π × 10−7 H/m

K = Nagaoka coefficient
N = number of turns
A = area of cross-section of the coil in m2
l = length of coil in m

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 Inductors
The magnetic field from an inductor can generate an induced
voltage, which can be used to drive current

While building the magnetic field, the inductor resists current flow

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 Inductors

What happens to the light bulb when the switch is closed?

What happens to the light bulb when the switch is then opened?
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 Energy storage
Inductors can store energy in the form of a magnetic
field when a current is passed through them.

The work required to establish current through the

coil, and therefore the magnetic field, is given by

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 Transformers and alternators
Inductors are located in both transformers and alternators,
allowing voltage conversion and current generation, respectively

Transformer converts from

one voltage to another Alternator produces AC current
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 Electrical sources

An electrical source is a voltage

or current generator capable of
supplying energy to a circuit

Examples:

-AA batteries
-12-Volt car battery
-Wall plug

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 Ideal voltage source
An ideal voltage source is a circuit element where the voltage
across the source is independent of the current through it.

Recall Ohm’s Law: V=IR

The internal resistance of an ideal voltage source is zero.

If the current through an ideal voltage source is

completely determined by the external circuit, it
is considered an independent voltage source

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 Ideal current source
An ideal current source is a circuit element where the current
through the source is independent of the voltage across it.

Recall Ohm’s Law: I = V/R

The internal resistance of an ideal current source is infinite.

If the voltage across an ideal current source is

completely determined by the external circuit, it
is considered an independent current source

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 Dependent Sources
A dependent or controlled source depends upon a different
voltage or current in the circuit

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 Chapter 2. Electric Circuits and Power

• 2.1 Series and Parallel Circuits

• 2.2 Analysis of Circuits
• 2.3 Electric Power, AC, and DC Electricity
 Chapter 2. Objectives
1. Recognize and sketch examples of series and parallel circuits.
2. Describe a short circuit and why a short circuit may be a
dangerous hazard.
3. Calculate the current in a series or parallel circuit containing
up to three resistances.
4. Calculate the total resistance of a circuit by combining series
or parallel resistances.
5. Describe the differences between AC and DC electricity.
6. Calculate the power used in an AC or DC circuit from the
current and voltage.
 Chapter 2. Vocabulary Terms
 series circuit
 parallel circuit
 short circuit
 network circuit
 circuit analysis
 power
 Kirchhoff’s voltage law
 voltage drop direct
 current (DC)
 alternating current (AC)
 kilowatt
 Kirchhoff’s current law
 horsepower
 power factor
 circuit breaker
 watt
 kilowatt-hour
 2.1 Series and Parallel Circuits
Key Question:
How do series and parallel circuits work?
 2.1 Series and Parallel Circuits

• In series circuits, current can only take one

path.
• The amount of current is the same at all
points in a series circuit.
 2.1 Adding resistances in series

• Each resistance in a series

circuit adds to the total
resistance of the circuit.

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3...
Total resistance
(ohms)
Individual resistances (W)
 2.1 Total resistance in a series
circuit
• Light bulbs, resistors, motors, and heaters usually have much
greater resistance than wires and batteries.
 2.1 Calculate current

• How much current flows in a circuit with a 1.5-volt battery

and three 1 ohm resistances (bulbs) in series?
2.1 Voltage in a series circuit

• Each separate resistance creates a

voltage drop as the current passes
through.
• As current flows along a series circuit,
each type of resistor transforms
some of the electrical energy into
another form of energy
• Ohm’s law is used to calculate the
voltage drop across each resistor.
 2.1 Series and Parallel Circuits

• In parallel circuits the current can take more than one path.
• Because there are multiple branches, the current is not the
same at all points in a parallel circuit.
 2.1 Series and Parallel Circuits

• Sometimes these paths are called branches.

• The current through a branch is also called the branch current.
• When analyzing a parallel circuit, remember that the current
always has to go somewhere.
• The total current in the circuit is the sum of the currents in all
the branches.
• At every branch point the current flowing out must equal the
current flowing in.
• This rule is known as Kirchhoff’s current law.
 2.1 Voltage and current
• In a parallel circuit the voltage is the same
in a parallel circuit
across each branch because each branch has a
low resistance path back to the battery.
• The amount of current in each branch in a
parallel circuit is not necessarily the same.
• The resistance in each branch determines the
current in that branch.
 2.1 Advantages of parallel circuits
Parallel circuits have two big advantages over
series circuits:
1. Each device in the circuit sees the full
battery voltage.
2. Each device in the circuit may be turned off
independently without stopping the current
flowing to other devices in the circuit.
 2.1 Short circuit

• A short circuit is a parallel path in a circuit with zero or very

low resistance.
• Short circuits can be made accidentally by connecting a wire
between two other wires at different voltages.
• Short circuits are dangerous because they can draw huge
amounts of current.
 2.1 Calculate current

• Two bulbs with different resistances are connected in

parallel to batteries with a total voltage of 3 volts.
• Calculate the total current supplied by the battery.
 2.1 Resistance in parallel circuits
• Adding resistance in parallel provides another
path for current, and more current flows.
• When more current flows for the same
voltage, the total resistance of the circuit
decreases.
• This happens because every new path in a
parallel circuit allows more current to flow for
the same voltage.
 2.1 Adding resistance in parallel
circuits

• A circuit contains a 2 ohm resistor and a 4 ohm

resistor in parallel.
• Calculate the total resistance of the circuit.
 2.2 Analysis of Circuits

Key Question:
How do we analyze
network circuits?

*Students read Section 20.2

AFTER Investigation 20.2
 2.2 Analysis of Circuits
• All circuits work by manipulating currents and
voltages.
• The process of circuit analysis means figuring
out what the currents and voltages in a circuit
are, and also how they are affected by each
other.
• Three basic laws are the foundation of circuit
analysis.
2.2 Three circuit laws
2.2 Voltage divider circuit
 2.2 Voltage divider

• A circuit divides any supplied voltage by a ratio

of the resistors.

V0 = R2 Vi
R1 + R2
Output Input
resistor ratio voltage
voltage
(volts) (W) (volts)
 2.2 Solving circuit problems

1. Identify what the problem is asking you to

find. Assign variables to the unknown
quantities.
2. Make a large clear diagram of the circuit. Label
all of the known resistances, currents, and
voltages. Use the variables you defined to
label the unknowns.
3. You may need to combine resistances to find
the total circuit resistance. Use multiple steps
 2.2 Solving circuit problems

4. If you know the total resistance and current,

use Ohm’s law as V = IR to calculate voltages
or voltage drops. If you know the resistance
and voltage, use Ohm’s law as I = V ÷ R to
calculate the current.
5. An unknown resistance can be found using
Ohm’s law as R = V ÷ I, if you know the
current and the voltage drop through the
resistor.
2.2 Solving circuit problems

• A bulb with a resistance of 1Ω is to be

used in a circuit with a 6-volt battery.
• The bulb requires 1 amp of current.
• If the bulb were connected directly to the
battery, it would draw 6 amps and burn
out instantly.
• To limit the current, a resistor is added in
series with the bulb.
• What size resistor is needed to make the
current 1 amp?
 2.2 Network circuits

• In many circuits, resistors are connected both

in series and in parallel.
• Such a circuit is called a network circuit.
• There is no single formula for adding resistors
in a network circuit.
• For very complex circuits, electrical engineers
use computer programs that can rapidly solve
equations for the circuit using Kirchhoff’s laws.
2.2 Calculate using network circuits

• Three bulbs, each with a resistance

of 3Ω, are combined in the circuit
in the diagram
• Three volts are applied to the
circuit.
• Calculate the current in each of the
bulbs.
• From your calculations, do you
think all three bulbs will be equally
bright?
 2.3 Electric Power, AC, and DC
Electricity
Key Question:
How much does
electricity cost and
what do you pay for?
 2.3 Electric Power, AC, and DC
Electricity
• The watt (W) is a unit of
power.
• Power is the rate at which
energy moves or is used.
• Since energy is measured in
joules, power is measured in
joules per second.
20.3 Reviewing terms
 2.3 Power in electric circuits

• One watt is a pretty small amount of power.

• In everyday use, larger units are more
convenient to use.
• A kilowatt (kW) is equal to 1,000 watts.
• The other common unit of power often seen
on electric motors is the horsepower.
• One horsepower is 746 watts.
 2.3 Power

Voltage (volts)
Power (watts) P = VI Current (amps)
2.3 Calculate power

• A light bulb with a

resistance of 1.5Ω is
connected to a 1.5-volt
battery in the circuit shown
at right.
• Calculate the power used
by the light bulb.
 2.3 Paying for electricity

• Electric companies charge for the

number of kilowatt-hours used
during a set period of time, often a
month.
• One kilowatt-hour (kWh) means that
a kilowatt of power has been used
for one hour.
• Since power multiplied by time is
energy, a kilowatt-hour is a unit of
energy.
• One kilowatt-hour is 3.6 x 106 joules.
 2.3 Calculate power

• Your electric company charges 14 cents per kilowatt-hour.

Your coffee maker has a power rating of 1,050 watts.
• How much does it cost to use the coffee maker one hour
per day for a month?
 2.3 Alternating and direct current

• The current from a battery is

always in the same direction.
• One end of the battery is
positive and the other end is
negative.
• The direction of current flows
from positive to negative.
• This is called direct current, or
DC.
 2.3 Alternating and direct current

• If voltage alternates, so does

current.
• When the voltage is positive, the
current in the circuit is clockwise.
• When the voltage is negative the
current is the opposite direction.
• This type of current is called
alternating current, or AC.
 2.3 Alternating and direct current

• AC current is used for almost all high-power

applications because it is easier to generate
and to transmit over long distances.
• The 220 volt AC (VAC) electricity used in
homes and businesses
• AC electricity is usually identified by the
average voltage, (220 VAC) not the peak
voltage.
 2.3 Power in AC circuits

• For a circuit containing a

motor, the power calculation is
a little different from that for a
simple resistance like a light
bulb.
• Because motors store energy
and act like generators, the
current and voltage are not in
phase with each other.
• The current is always a little
behind the voltage.
 20.3 Power for AC circuits

• Electrical engineers use a power factor (pf) to calculate power

for AC circuits with motors

Avg. voltage Avg. current (amps)

(volts)

Power (watts) P = VI x pf

power factor
0-100%
Application: Wiring in Homes and
Buildings
Application: Wiring in Homes and
Buildings
 MAGNETISM &
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Lecture 3
 Magnets and Magnetic Fields
• This is sometimes a complicated subject, because although
we use it every day in every motor, we don't really come in
contact with magnetism.
• Also, the way the force of magnetism acts is unlike any we
have come in contact with yet in our study of physical
phenomena. It is a property that always requires three
dimensions to describe.
• Because magnetism involves three dimensions, we often have
to draw vectors into the plane of the paper or out of the plane
of the paper. We represent vectors like that as arrows. But all
we see is either the tip of the arrow , if the field is coming
out of the page, or the tail of the arrow, , if the field is going
into the page.
Permanent Magnets and Magnetic
Fields
 Magnetic Field of a Wire (Hans
Christian Oersted – 1820)
• The field goes in circles around the wire. The
direction is given by the right hand rule. Thumb is
in direction of current.
• The fingers curl in the direction of the magnetic
field. What is its magnitude? A drawing of the
field lines shows they go in circles around the
wire and are denser near the wire.
• Where the field lines are denser, the magnetic
field is stronger.
• It is stronger near the wire.
• The magnitude is given by the formula
MAGNETISM AND CURRENT
 Magnetic Field of a Wire Loop
• What about a loop of wire? Each section of
the wire gives a magnetic field with the
direction determined by the right hand rule.
• The magnetic field inside the wire is in a
different direction from the magnetic field
outside the wire. At the center of the loop
 Magnetic Field of a Wire Loop
• N = number of turns. I = current in the wire. R
is the radius of the wire
 Ampere's Law
• There is a fundamental principle which allows
us to calculate the magnetic field from any
wire carrying a current.
• André Marie Ampere determined that if we
take any closed path around a current carrying
wire and looked only at the vector component
of the magnetic field parallel to that closed
path, you would find
 Magnetic Field of a Solenoid
• If I now take many turns of wire, and pack
them tightly, I get a solenoid. Inside the
solenoid, the magnetic field is approximately
constant and outside the solenoid the
magnetic field is approximately zero. See
Figure below. The direction of the field is given
by the RHR and the magnitude can be
determined using Ampere's law.
 Magnetic Field of a Solenoid

• where n = number of turns per unit length and

I is the current in the loop.
 Magnetic Fields Exert a Force on a
Moving Charge
Characteristics of the Force
• A magnetic field can create a force on an object. However, for the
object to feel a force, and the magnetic field to affect the object,
three things must be true
1. The object must have an electric charge.
2. The charged object must be moving.
3. The velocity of the moving charged object must have a component
that is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
• A slightly different "Right Hand Rule" (RHR) is used to determine
the direction of the force on a charged particle from a magnetic
field. Index finger points in direction of the particle's velocity, the
middle finger points in the direction of the magnetic field, and the
thumb points in the direction of the force on a positive charge - the
direction a positively charged particle will accelerate.
 Definition of Magnetic Field
• Remember that there was a relationship
between the electric field and the force that a
charged particle felt. That relationship was
qE=F. Similarly, there is a relationship between
a magnetic field and the force a charged
particle feels. It is
• Remember that force is a vector, and there is a
direction to this force. The direction is given
by the RHR as explained above. If we look at
this equation we can see four different ways
to increase the force a particle feels from a
magnetic field? Increase B. Increase q.
Increase v. Maximize sin theta. The sign of q
must be used.
 Magnetic Fields Exert a Force on a
Current in a Wire
• What is a current in a wire? Moving charges.
What does a magnetic field do to moving
charges? Exerts a force. What does a magnetic
field do to a wire. Exerts a force.
 Magnetic Fields Exert a Force on a
Current in a Wire
• A stereo speaker works by using this principle.
If current increases the force increases. The
direction is given by RHR.
 Magnetic Fields Exert a Torque on a
Current in a Coil
• Now put a current carrying loop of wire in an
already present magnetic field.
• There is a force on the loop due to the current
in the wires and the force on all the wires
creates a net torque.
• The torque is given by force multiplied by the
length of the lever arm:
 Force Between Two Wires
• Okay, what do we know about currents in
wires.
• They produce a magnetic field.
• They feel a force from magnetic fields
ELECTROMAGNETISM
 Introduction
• The main emphasis of this chapter can be
summed up in one sentence. A Changing
Magnetic Flux induces an emf (electromotive
force, or voltage difference). This statement
immediately brings up three questions that we
need to answer?
• What is a magnetic flux?
• How do you change it?
• What are the consequences of the induced emf
and what is its polarity?
 Magnetic Flux
• Definition: What is Magnetic Flux
 ELECTROMAGNETISM
APPLICATIONS:
• Electric generator
• Electric motor Electrical machines

• Transformers
Transformers
 AC Circuits lecture 4
Objectives:

Understanding AC circuits and their use in

electric network
RLC series and parallel circuits
Power factor
Economic power factor improvement
 Phasors m
• R: V in phase with i VR  Ri R   m sin w t  iR  sin wt
R
Q
• C: V lags i by 90° VC    m sin wt  i C  w C  m cos w t
C
m
• L: V leads i by 90° VL  L
di L
  m sin wt  iL  
wL
cos wt
dt

 A phasor is a vector whose magnitude is the maximum value of a quantity (eg V or I) and
which rotates counterclockwise in a 2-d plane with angular velocity w. Recall uniform circular
motion:
x  r cosw t
y  r sin w t y y
w
The projections of r (on the
vertical y axis) execute x
sinusoidal oscillation.
 Suppose: r1
r1
xx
Phasors for L,C,R
00,,
nn
.... r1

11
r1

 V
i
i w
R V
f(f(xx))000
R
VR  Ri m sin w t
wt
r1
xx 00,, r1 .... r1
r1
n 11 t
00 22 44 66
11
xx

i i w
1
VC   i m cos wt f( x ) 00
wC wt
r1
V
C
x 0 , .. r1 V
n 1 C
0 2 4 66
1.01 1

w
x
i V
L i
VL  w Li m cos w t f( x ) 0
0
wt
V
L
1.01 1
0 2 4 6
 Phasors: LCR
• Given:    m sin w t
• Assume: R

C L

~

w
i m wL
 From these equations, we can draw the phasor diagram
to the right.

 This picture corresponds to a snapshot at t=0. The

 m
projections of these phasors along the vertical axis

are the actual values of the voltages at the given
time.

im
wC im R
 Phasors: LCR i m XL w

R
C  m
L
 

~
i m XC im R
• The phasor diagram has been relabeled in terms of the reactances
defined from:
1
X L  wL XC 
wC

The unknowns (im,) can now be solved for graphically

since the vector sum of the voltages
VL + VC + VR must sum to the driving emf .
 Phasors:LCR
i m XL

i m (XL-X C) im R
 m


  m

i m XC im R X L  XC
tan  
R

 
X L  wL XC 
1
 2m  i 2m R 2   X L  X C 
2
wC


Z  R 2  X L  XC 
2
m m
im  
R 2  X L  XC 
2 Z
 Phasors:Tips i m XL
• This phasor diagram was drawn as a snapshot y
of time t=0 with the voltages being given as the
projections along the y-axis.
 m
• Sometimes, in working problems, it is easier to
 x
draw the diagram at a time when the current is
along the x-axis (when i=0).


imXL
i m XC im R

m
From this diagram, we can also create a triangle
which allows us to calculate the impedance Z:

imR
Z
X L  XC
imXC

R
“Full Phasor Diagram” “ Impedance Triangle”
 Phasors:LCR
We have found the general solution for the driven LCR circuit:

imXL i  i m sin( w t   )
the loop
m w eqn
tan  
X L  XC
  R

  imZ
m
imR im 
Z
imXC XL

Z
X L  wL
XL - XC
1 
XC  R
wC
XC
Z  R 2  X L  XC 
2
 Lagging & Leading
The phase  between the current and the driving emf depends on the relative
magnitudes of the inductive and capacitive reactances.

 X  XC X L  wL
im  m tan   L 1
Z R XC 
wC
XL

Z XL
XL

 Z
R  R R
Z
XC XC
XC
XL > XC XL < XC XL = XC
>0 <0 =0
current current current
LAGS LEADS IN PHASE
applied voltage applied voltage applied voltage
 Parallel RLC Circuit
Discussions and exercises on parallel RLC Circuits
during the lecture will be conducted
 Power in RLC circuits both in // and
Series
• Discussed in class
• Exercises
• Assignments