CHAPTER 2:

ALTERNATING VOLTAGE & CURRENT

1. Introduction
2. Generating AC Voltages
3. Waveform Terms & Definitions
4. Voltages & Currents as function of time
5. Average & R.M.S. Values
6. Phasor Representation
INTRODUCTION
Towards the end of this chapter, you should:
 Have an understanding of alternating currents and voltages
 Familiar with simple means of generating an alternating e.m.f
 Capable of analyzing the generated alternating e.m.f
 Understanding of the terms average and r.m.s
 Capable of representing a sinusoidal quantity by means of phasor
 Capable of adding and subtracting sinusoidal quantities by means of
phasor diagram
Why AC is required?
• DC cannot be transmitted as economically as AC transmission systems
• AC can be step-up and down
• Nowadays, many electrical appliances are using AC system
GENERATING AC VOLTAGES
 Tidal Hydro

How to turn the

coils?

Geothermal
Wind
 Formula of Induced EMF

AM = AL sin θ = u sin θ

Assume, l is length of conductor of one side

(m), B is flux density (T)

Total e.m.f. generated in loop is, e = 2 B l u sin θ

u is also π b n, where b is breadth of the loop in meters, n is the speed of rotation in revolutions per second

total e.m.f. generated in loop is, e = 2 B l π b n sin θ

= 2 π B A n sin θ
where A = lb= area of loop in square meters

Em = 2 π B N A n (V)
where N is number of turns
 Waveform Terms & Definitions
1. Period, T – time taken to complete one cycle (s)
2. Peak value, Vm or Vp, Im or Ip – Maximum instantaneous value measured from
its zero value (V or A)
3. Peak-to-peak value, Vp-p or Ip-p – Value between maximum an minimum peaks
(V or A)
4. Frequency, f – Number of cycles that occur in 1 second (Hz)
5. Amplitude – periodical variable that change over the time
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FREQUENCY, SPEED AND NUMBER
OF POLE PAIRS
If and AC generator has p pairs of poles and if its speed is n revolution per second, then

frequency = f = no of cycles per second

= no of cycles per revolution x no of revolution per second
f = pn hertz

Thus, if two poles machine having 50 Hz frequency,

50 = 1 x n
Therefore, speed = 50 revolution per second = 50 x 60 = 3000 r/min.
If 60 Hz , maximum speed is 3600 r/min.
Example:
A coil of 160 turns is rotated at 1500 r/m in a magnetic field having a
uniform density of 0.15 T. The mean area per turn is 50 cm2. Calculate:

a) the frequency;
b) the period;
c) the maximum value of the induced emf;
d) the value of the induced emf when the coil has rotated
through 30 from the position of zero emf.
Voltages & Currents as function of time
e = 2 π B N A n sin θ Em = 2 π B N A n

 Rad/s = 2 π f

t

At the end, alternating voltage and current can be formed as function of time as:

» e (t) = Ep sin ω t (V)

» i (t) = Ip sin ω t (A)

Example:
If Em = 100 Volt, Determine If the coil rotates at ω =
the coil voltage at: 3000/s, how long does it take
to complete 1 revolution?
a) 30°
b) 330°
Phase Shift/difference

Phase shift occur when there are L

or/and C exist in the circuit
 3 important situations

Lead:
i is leading V for certain
Lead: amount of angular
V is leading i for certain amount displacement, .
In phase:
of angular displacement, . Or
V and I are in phase since
Or Lag:
the angular displacement
Lag: V is lagging i for certain
is zero.
i is lagging V for certain amount amount of angular
of angular displacement, . displacement, .
Example:
1) Given v = 10 sin ( ωt + 200), sketch the waveform.

2) Given v = 20 sin ( ωt - 350), sketch the waveform:

Average & R.M.S. Values
area under curve
Average 
lengthof base

•For a complete sinusoidal waveform, average value = 0 since it is

symmetrical.

•Area for half cycle of sine wave is:



Ip  I p sin  d   I p cos 

0  2I p
0

0

Average values

 I p sin  .d   I p cos 0  2 I p

Ip 

0
0

Full wave average

Ip 22 I p 
I ave   0.637 I p
Iave
2
0
 2
 •Also known as effective value
RMS value •Value to do useful work
•It is an equivalent dc value – Eg: 240Vac capable
of producing the same average power as 240 volts
of steady dc

For dc For ac
RMS value

Im
I  0.707 I m
2
 Phasor Representation

•Phasor – Magnitude & Angle

•It is actually a complex number

v (t) = Vp sin t  v = Vp  0 (V)

i (t) = Ip sin t  I = Ip  0 (A)
 Phasor Representation

i = Im sin(t +  ) = Im  

Phasor
diagram

i = Im sin(t -  ) = Im  -
Example:
Phase different between Voltage and current waveforms are 40 , and voltage
lags. Using current as the reference, sketch the phasor diagram and the
corresponding waveform.
Example:
Given v = 20 sin (t + 30) and I =18 sin (t - 40), draw the phasor diagram,
determine phase relationships, and sketch the waveforms.

V leads I by 700 or I lags V by 700

Addition & Subtraction of Phasors
Why??
Vector subtraction, Example:
The instantaneous values of two alternating voltages are represented respectively by v1=60 sin 
(V) and V2= 40 sin ( - /3) (V). Derive an expression for the instantaneous value of :
a) the sum; » V1+ V2 =87.2 sin ( - 23.410) (V)
b) the difference of these voltage (V1 – V2) » V1- V2 =52.9 sin ( + 40.890) (V)