Chapter 3 – Part 1

Boundary Layer Theory

By:
Bukhari bin Manshoor, PhD
Assoc. Prof.
Dept. of Energy & Thermofluid Engineering
Faculty of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering

© Dr. Bukhari bin Manshoor

Scopes
 Introduction of Boundary Layer
 Boundary layer thickness;
- Displacement thickness
- Momentum thickness
 Laminar boundary layer
 Flat plate boundary layer equation
 Turbulent boundary layer
Introduction
• In one of the earlier chapters, we have seen that by assuming zero
viscosity, simple flow fields can be constructed and analyzed using
Potential Flow Theory.
• However, strictly speaking, Potential Flow Theory is not truly valid
though it is generally accepted to give good estimations when the fluid
viscosity is very low, when the boundary layers are very thin and no
significant flow separations occur.
• Clearly, real-world experience will tell us that most fluid flows do not
satisfy the above assumptions, as most engineering problems deal with
significant boundary layer growth and viscous effects.
• In some cases, massive flow separations are part of the problem
which needs to be suppressed or delayed i.e. aircraft stall. Thus, this
chapter will elaborate upon the relationships between boundary
layers and wakes.
Boundary Layer
• Boundary layer is formed adjacent to any surface or solid boundary
over which a non-zero viscosity fluid flows.
• Due to the “no slip” condition, fluid velocity is zero at the wall but
increases gradually to the free-stream velocity as the distance from the
surface increases.
• As the fluid begins to flow over the flat plate, boundary layer will
start to form right from the leading-edge of the flat plate.
• Due to the fluid viscosity, more and more fluid away from the wall
will be slowed down and the boundary layer thickness will grow as the
fluid travels further down the flat plate.
• Assuming the free-stream fluid velocity, U∞ is moderate; the
boundary layer formed shortly after the leading-edge will be laminar.
• Generally speaking, the boundary layer thickness is the distance
measured from the wall to the point where the velocity is 99% of the
free-stream fluid velocity i.e. u = 0.99U∞
• Back to the figure, as the fluid continues to flow further downstream
and upon reaching a critical transition point, the flow will begin to
transit from laminar to turbulent flow. This will occur over a short
intermediate distance between the laminar and turbulent boundary
layers, known as the transition region.
• Beyond the transition region, the boundary layer will become
turbulent and continue to increase in thickness. Despite the turbulent
nature, there will be a very small but essentially laminar region formed
next to the wall within the turbulent boundary layer known as the
viscous sub-layer.

• Nonetheless, a turbulent boundary

layer has higher levels of fluid
activities near to the flat plate surface
and results in a more uniform velocity
distribution i.e. greater velocity
gradient, as shown in figure if non-
dimensionalised velocity profiles of a
laminar and a turbulent boundary
layer are plotted side-by-side.
 * Y. Nakayama, Tokai University

• The above figures show actual flow visualizations of water flows past
flat-plates which produced laminar boundary layers.
• The vertical white streaks are very small hydrogen bubble “lines”
produced at regular time intervals within the water flow and they
depict the boundary layer growing thicker as the flow travels further
downstream.
Boundary Layer Thicknesses

• So far the boundary layer thickness has been referred to only in physical terms;
namely boundary layer thickness, δ.
• The boundary layer thickness is defined as a distance from the surface where the
local velocity equals 99% of the free-stream fluid velocity.

  yu 0.99U  
• Another way to define boundary layer thickness is the displacement thickness, δ*
and momentum thickness, ϴ.
i) Displacement thickness, δ*
• Displacement thickness, δ* is the distance the wall needed to be “displaced” in
order to reduce a free stream flow (U∞) by a volume rate equivalent to that
amount which “missing” due to the present B.L.

• Due to the boundary layer, the volume of fluid passing on elemental area δy. 1
decrease by (U∞ - u) δy. 1 = δQ

• The total volume reduction in flow;


Q    Q   U   u y
0

• Since Q = U∞ . δ* .1

U  .   U   u y
*
0

1 
   U   u y
*

U 0
 u 
 *   1   y
0
 U 
ii) Momentum thickness, ϴ
• Momentum thickness, ϴ is the distance the wall needed to be “shifted” in
order to reduce a free stream flow (U∞) by a momentum rate equivalent to that
amount which “missing” due to the present B.L. Q
• The momentum without boundary layer =  u y.1.U    m U 
• The actual momentum (due to B.L) =  u y.1.u
• Hence, deficit in momentum =  u y.1.U   u y.1.u
=  U   u u y

• Total momentum deficit =   U
0
  u u y

θ
• Equate as equivalent to a momentum thickness, ϴ, having the total
momentum of ρϴ. U∞.U∞.1

  U  .U  .1    U   u u y
0


 U   u u y
1

U U  0

 
 U   u  u y
0 U U 

 U  u  u

     y
0
 U  U 
 u u
   1   y
0
 U  U 
Laminar Boundary Layer
u 2u y 2
 
U   2

du
 
dy

• Let consider the B.L that occurred over a flat plate in laminar region. Shear
stress, τ varies from shear wall (τw) to zero at y = δ.

• By assuming τ the varies linear with y;

  C   y  Boundary condition applied; at y=0 τ=τw

at y=δ τ=0
  C   y 
du

dy

  du   C   y dy
 y2 
 u  C  y    C1 at u=0 y=0 i.e. C1=0
 2
 y2 
 u  C  y   at u=U∞ y=δ i.e. C=2μU∞/δ2
 2
2U  y2 
u  2   y  
  2

2U  y2 
u  2  y  
  2
u 2 y y2
  2 Velocity profile for flow over a flat plate…
U  
Momentum thickness for laminar boundary layer
• As derived before, the momentum thickness can be define as;

 u u
   1   y
0
 U  U 
u 2 y y2
• The velocity profile,   2
U  
• Substitute the velocity profile into the momentum thickness equation;
  2 y y2   2 y y2 
   1   2    2  y
0
      
  2y y 2 4 y 2 2 y3 2 y3 y 4 
     2  2  3  3  4 y
0
      

 y 5y y 2y
2 3 4
y 
3 5
5 1
   2  3  3  4         
  3   5  0 3 5

2
 
15
Displacement thickness for laminar boundary layer
• As derived before, the displacement thickness can be define as;

 u 
 *   1   y
0
 U 
u 2 y y2
• The velocity profile,   2
U  
• Substitute the velocity profile into the displacement thickness equation;

  2 y y2 
 *   1   2  y
0
   

 y 2 y3 
*  y   2 
  3  0

*    
3
1
*  
3
B.L thickness for laminar boundary layer
• From the definition, the B.L thickness can be defined as   yu 0.99U  
• We also can write down the B.L thickness as a function of x.   f x 
• Starting with Integral Momentum Equation (IME) for non-porous plate;
w 

U  x
2

• As derived for ϴ, substitute the momentum thickness into IME;

w d 152  

U 
2
dx
• Solving the equation to obtain the B.L thickness.
u 2 y y2
- Velocity profile;   2
U  

du  2 2y 
 U   2 
dy   
- Know that;
 du 
 w     Substitute the du/dy into this shear wall stress,
 dy  y 0
  2 2y 
 w   U    2  
      y 0
2U 
w 

- Equate with the previous equation of shear wall stress;
2 d 2U 
 w   U . 
2

15 dx 
2 2 d 15 2
  . dx   d Integrate both side;
U  15 dx 2 U 

15 2 15 2
 2 . U  dx    d 
U 
x A 
2
To flat plate BL
- Boundary conditions;
At x=0 (leading edge), δ=0 therefore, A=0

 2 15
 x
2 U 
1/ 2
30  30 
2  x     x 
U   U  
x x 
  30    30 x
U  x U  x
 5.47

x Re x
- From experimental work, the B.L thickness was obtained as;
 5

x Re x
- By substitute the B.L thickness into the displacement and
momentum thickness equations, the displacement and momentum
thickness are given by;
Paul Richard Heinrich Blasius (1883 – 1970)
 * 1.823
 He was one of the first students of Prandtl who
x Re x provided a mathematical basis for boundary-layer
drag but also showed as early as 1911 that the
resistance to flow through smooth pipes could be
expressed in terms of the Reynolds number for both
 0.730
 laminar and turbulent flow. After six years in science
x Re x he changed to Ingenieurschule Hamburg (today:
University of Applied Sciences Hamburg) and
became a Professor. April first 1962 Heinrich Blasius
celebrated his 50th anniversary and was active in
teaching until he died on April 24th 1970.

The constant value in the equations are depend on velocity profile

used to derive the displacement and momentum thickness. The
example used here are base on the parabolic velocity profile;
u 2 y y2
 
U   2
Flat Plate Boundary Layer Equations
• Let consider a flow over the flat plate surface as in figure;
• From previous derivation, we were found that the shear wall stress can be
written as;

2U 
 w 

 5.47
• The B.L. thickness, 
x Re x
• Therefore;

Re x
  w  2U 
5.47 x
 12
 U x 
1 1 1
2 2 2

  w  2U 
5.47 x
2  2U  2  2
1 3 1

 w  1
2  2U  2  2
1 3 1

 12
5.47 x 2
Let   w  Cx where C 
5.47
  2 12 U 32  12 
FSF  2   BL 1

• At x from leading edge, elemental  5.47 
2

area dx.B = dA. Therefore the  

elemental skin friction drag;  2 2U  2  2  1 L2
1 3 1 1

 2  BL 2 1
 5.47 
  
FSF  dFSF L2

dFSF   w dA 4 U  
 U A
L
5.47 L
 FSF  
0
w dA
Know that the skin friction coefficient,
L FSF / A

1
FSF   Cx 2 .B.dx Cf 
0 1
2
U  2
L

1
FSF   BC x 2 .dx
0 4 U  
L U A / A
FSF   BC  2 x 2  5.47 L
1

  0 C f 

1 2
2 U 
1
FSF  2BCL 2

1.46
- Substitute C into the above equation; Cf 
Re L
Exercise
If plate is 3 m wide by 10 m long, placed in the water tunnel having a velocity
0.5 m/s, determine the force skin friction for one side of the plate.

Given; μ = 1.0 x 10-3 kg/ms

• As mentioned in previous slide, the constant value in all the derived
equations are depend on the types of velocity profile over the flat plate. Here
are the various assumed laminar flow velocity profile with the constant value
for each cases of velocity profile.

Velocity profile  Re x  Re x C f Re L
x x
a Blasius solution 5.00 0.664 1.328
(Experimental)

b Linear. u y 3.46 0.578 1.156


U 

c Parabolic. u 2u y 2 5.48 0.730 1.460

 
U   2
d Cubic. u 3 y 1 y
3
4.64 0.646 1.292
    
U 2    2   
e Sine wave. u  y  4.79 0.655 1.310
 sin  
U  2 
Example 1.1
Air flows along a thin, symmetry aerofoil and hence generates a boundary
layer around the aerofoil. The velocity, Us outside the boundary layer is 35
m/s and the boundary layer thickness at trailing edge is 2.0 mm. The velocity
profile within the boundary layer given by;
U  y 
 sin  
Us  2 
Evaluate the drag on one side of the aerofoil per unit width. You can use
Integral Momentum Equation (IME) as a tool in your evaluation. The IME
given as;
w d
IME ; 
U s 2 dx
(Given: ρ = 1.29 kg/m3, μ = 1.71x10-5 kg/sm)
Example 1.2
Oil with free stream velocity of 3.0 m/s flows over a thin plate 1.25 m wide
and 2 m long. Determine the B.L thickness and the shear stress at the mid-
length and calculate the total, double-sided resistance of the plate.

Given; ρ = 860 kg/m3, ν = 10-5 m2/s

Turbulent Boundary Layer
• In the previous section, the variables
which characterize flat-plate laminar
boundary layers under zero pressure
gradients are discussed.

• They have been proven experimentally

to be quite accurate until the point where
the boundary layer begins to transit to
turbulence.

• As indicated in previous section, the

transition from a laminar boundary layer
to a turbulent one usually occurs over a
region of the flat-plate, instead of
an abrupt transition at a single location
(see figure).

• This is due to the nature of turbulence, where their initiations are not well-
defined and depends very much on the stability of the flow. This also means that
transition to turbulence is highly sensitive to whether the pressure gradient is
favorable or adverse.
• Nonetheless, for a flow over a flat-plate, the general rule is that the boundary
layer can be considered to be fully-turbulent when the Reynolds number exceeds
the critical value of:
Re  10 6
• Velocity profile in turbulent region most likely to have the form of;
1 1
u  y 7  y 7
  or u  U  
U    
• Differentiate w.r.t y;
6 6

du 1 y 1 7 U    7
 U   .   
dy 7    7  y 
 du 

• Wall shear stress, w  

 dy  y 0
 du  6

•   at y = 0 is U       , τw cannot be defined at y = 0.
7

 dy  y 0 7  0 
• Hence we cannot substitute for τw into the Integral Momentum Equation
(IME) even though we may established the value for momentum thickness.
 u u
   1   y
0
 U  U 
1
u  y 7
• The velocity profile;  
U  


 1
 1
 y 7   y 7
   1       dy
0
     
 
7
  1
72 u  y7
 
• This is therefore a limitation to Prandtl velocity profile U     which only
describe the turbulent boundary layer up to the laminar sub-layer and not to the
wall.
• In order to determine the value of turbulent boundary layer thickness as a
function of x, we need to introduce shear wall value from experimental work.
• One such experiment result
maybe turbulent flow in pipe.
• Unsteady flow condition;

Net force  p1 A  p2 A   w . D L  0
 D2
  p1  p2    w . D L p2  p1
4
p1  p2   m   gH
 w .   p1  p2 
D
4L
Blasius (1913) proposed an
• In general; accurate emperical relation
for the friction factor for
1 0.079 turbulent flow (Red>103) in
 w  f  u 2 Where; f = friction factor =
Re d 4
1 smooth pipe.
2
u = average velocity of flow, ≈ 80% U∞

• Radius, R is also the B.L thickness for fully developed flow in pipe.
• So, from the experimental result;
0.079 1 2
w   u u D
1
2 Since Re 
 u D  4 
d

 
  


0.079
1

1
 0.8U  2

2
  0.8U  2  4
 
  
1

2 

  4
 0.0225 U   
 U  
• From the Integral Momentum Equation (IME);
w  7
 Where;  
U  x
2
72
• The B.L thickness for turbulent flow can be obtain by solve the equation
above.
 7 
  d  
1
w 0.0225 U   
2
 
4
72 
U 
2

U 
2  U  
   dx
1
1
   1 7 d 4
  
 0.0225   . 1 
4
  4  0.288   x
5

 U    4 72 dx  U  
1 1

72    4 4    54 5
  .dx   4 d   0.288 5   x
1
 0.0225
7  U    U  
1 1
   4
   54 x 5
1

  dx    4 d
5
 0.231 
1

 0.37   x 1
 U    U   x 5
1 1
   4 4 5    5
 0.231   x  A   4  0.37 x  
 U   5
 U  x 
Boundary condition; at x = 0, δ = 0.
Therefore A = 0 0.37 x

Re x 
1
5
• The skin friction force on the flat surface may be determined by substitute the
B.L thickness that was derived into the shear wall equation.
1

 2 
  4
 w  0.0225 U   
 U   1
 
 
4
2   
 0.0225 U  
 U 0.37 x Re   5 

1

  x 
1 1
  4   4
   
   

 0.0225 U 
2
 

1   
 0.0225 U 
2
 

1 
     5
     5


 U 0 .37   x  
 U 0.37   x 
  U  x     U  x  
1
   1 
1

 
4
    15
 
5 4 5

 0.0225 U 
2       w  0.029 U 
2
  x
  U  x  0.37   U  
 
• Similar to the laminar B.L case, where we can obtained the drag force over the
flat plate for in the turbulent region.
• At x from the turbulent region,
elemental area dx.B = dA. Therefore
the elemental skin friction drag;
FD    FD
 FD   wdA
L
 FD    wdA
0 1

     15

5 Know that the skin friction coefficient,
L
  0.029 U    x B.dx
2
FD / A
0
 U   Cf 

1 2
1
4 L
U  1

 
2
    
 
5

2   
5
 B 0.029 U     x 5 
2 5
0.036 U    A / A
 U    4  0  U  L 
1 C f 

2    5 L
 
1 2
4 5 5 1
U
 B 0.036 U    L 1 2 

 U   L5
1

2 
  
 C f  0.0725 Re L 
1
5

 0.036 U    B L 5

 U  L 
• Summary of expressions for laminar and turbulent boundary layers on a
smooth flat plate aligned parallel to a uniform stream.
Note: This summary just for the Blasius flat plate boundary layer.

Property Laminar Turbulent Turbulent*

a Boundary layer thickness  5.00  0.16  0.38
  
x Re x x Re x 1/ 7 x Re x 1/ 5
b Displacement thickness  * 1.72  * 0.020  * 0.048
  
x Re x x Re x 1/ 7 x Re x 1/ 5
c Momentum thickness  0.664  0.016  0.037
  
x Re x x Re x 1/ 7 x Re x 1/ 5
d Local skin friction 1.328 0.027 0.059
C f ,x  C f ,x  C 
coefficient** Re x Re x 1/ 7 f ,x
Re x 1/ 5

**Cf,x is the local skin friction coefficient,

applied at only one value of x. *This expressions are generally preferred
for engineering analysis
Example 1.3
Air flows along a very thin plate. The length of the plate is 1 m and the
velocity U∞ outside the boundary layer is 20 m/s and the boundary layer
thickness measured as δ=0.38x/Rex1/5 and momentum thickness given as
θ=0.097δ. The velocity profile within the boundary layer is given by;
u y
 sin
U 2
If the transition region from laminar to turbulent occur at Re = 500,000,
evaluate the drag on the plate per unit width.

Given; ρ = 1.2 kg/m3, ν = 16 x 10-6 m2/s

Example 1.4
As an engineering students, you are supposed to know two things about the
turbulent boundary layer over a flat plate, namely local skin friction coefficient,
as in figure below,
0.027
C f ,x 
Re x 7
1

And the one-seventh-power law approximation for the boundary layer profile
shape, 1
u  y 7 u
  for y    1 for y  
U   U
Using the definitions of displacement thickness, δ* and momentum thickness,
ϴ, estimate how δ, δ* and ϴ vary with x.
Example 1.5
The streamwise velocity component for a laminar boundary is sometimes
assumed to be roughly approximated by the linear relation:
u y

U 
where,   1.25  10 2 x

Assume that we are trying to approximate the flow of air at standard sea-level
conditions past a flat plate where the free stream velocity, U∞ = 2.337 m/s,
density, ρ∞ = 1.225 kg/m3 and viscosity, μ∞ = 1.7894 x 10-5 kg/ms. Develop the
following expressions by assuming a linear velocity profile occurred.

(i) Distribution of the displacement thickness, δ*;

(iii) Skin friction coefficient, Cf.