Rock/Soil Excavation

Boring,
Drilling &
Blasting,
and
Tunneling

Modul-9
 Drilling
Creating a cavity in hard materials by means of impact
and/or abrasion/grinding
The first practical drilling machine was employed in 1861
(Alps on Mt. Cenis tunnel)
Drilling often accompanied/followed by other means
◦ installation of piping system for transporting material
(water well or soil sample)
◦ installation of made-made structure  foundation
◦ to help excavation by breaking hard medium  blasting
Drilling for Deep Water-well
Taking Soil Sample
Drilling for bored-foundation
Rock/Soil Excavation

Boring is a special form of

rock/soil excavation. It is a
formation of a cylindrical cavity in
a solid material

Drilling & blasting also special

form of rock excavation that uses
shock-mechanism to soften rock
formation.
Drilling & Blasting Dimensional Terminology
Blasting Terminologies
Stemming
◦ Filling between two explosive in a blast hole
◦ Sometimes made of jelly
Burden
◦ Amount of (thickness) of soil/rock to be removed (measured from the
distance of blast hole to open face
Spacing
◦ Distance between two adjacent blast hole
Bench & Face
◦ Method of drill & blasting that uses partial progress
◦ Alternative method: full-blast
Relief holes
◦ Emptied hole (not filled with explosive) to increase the effectiveness of a
blast mechanism
Drilling & Blasting Dimensional Terminology
Drilling & Blasting Dimensional Terminology

V-pattern firing sequence

Drilling & Blasting Dimensional Terminology
Drilling Glossary Terms
The horizontal ledge of an excavation face along which hole are drilled for
BENCH
blasting
BENCH HEIGHT The vertical distance from foot (lower part) to the top of the face of excavation
Amount of thickness) of soil/rock to be removed
BURDEN Horizontal distance from a rock face to the first row of drill holes OR the
distance between rows of drill holes
The distance between the rock face and a row of holes OR between adjacent
BURDEN DISTANCE
rows of holes
Holes for blasting made by a rotary drill consisting of a steel-pipe drill stem on
BLASTHOLES
the bottom of which is a roller bit that grinds.
CORE A drill designed for obtaining samples of rock from a hole
SPACING The distance between adjacent holes in the same row
STEMMING Material compacted to cover explosive, often made of jelly
SUBDRILLING The depth to which a blasthole will be drilled below the proposed final grade
POWDER FACTOR Ratio of explosive weight for each volume of fractured (blasted) rock
POWDER COLUMN LENGTH The thickness of explosive powder in a blasthole
Emptied holes (not filled up with explosive) to increase the effectiveness of
RELIEF HOLES
blasting mechanism
Type and Characteristics of Drilling Equipment

Max Diam. Max Depth

Type of Drill
(cm) (m)
Percussion Drill
Jack hammer 6.3 cm 6.1 m
Drifter 11.4 cm 4.6 m
Wagon drill 15.2 cm 15.3 m
Track drill 15.2 cm 15.3 m
Rotary Drill 183 cm 305 m
Rotary-percussion Drill 15.2 cm 46 m
Rock Density
Rock Classification Specific Gravity Density broken (ton/cy)
Basalt 2.8 – 3.0 2.36 – 2.53
Diabase 2.6 – 3.0 2.19 – 2.53
Dionite 2.8 – 3.0 2.36 – 2.53
Dolomite 2.8 – 2.9 2.36 – 2.44
Gneiss 2.6 – 2.9 2.19 – 2.44
Granite 2.6 – 2.9 2.19 – 2.28
Gypsum 2.3 – 2.8 1.94 – 2.36
Hematite 4.5 – 5.3 3.79 – 4.47
Limestone 2.4 – 2.9 1.94 – 2.28
Marble 2.1 – 2.9 2.02 – 2.28
Quartzite 2.0 – 2.8 2.19 – 2.36
Sandstone 2.0 – 2.8 1.85 – 2.36
Shale 2.4 – 2.8 2.02 – 2.36
Slate 2.5 – 2.8 2.28 – 2.36
Trap rock 2.6 – 3.0 2.36 – 2.53
Types of Drilling Mechanism

Percussion Rotary Down-hole

Drilling Drilling Drilling
Drill Bits
 Hardness Measure Drill penetration
Rock Moh’s number Scratch test Hardness Drilling Speed
Diamond 10 Will scratch glass 1- 2 Fast
Schist 5 Knife 3 -4 Fast – Medium
Granite 3 Knife Medium
5
Limestone 4 Copper coin
6–7 Slow – Medium
Potash 2 Finger nail
8–9 Slow
Gypsum 2 Finger nail

Mineral Moh’s number Vickers Hardness Number

Diamond 10 1,600
Corundum 9 400
Topaz 8 200
Quartz 7 100
Apatite 5 48
Fluorite 4 21
Calcite 3 9
Gypsum 2 3
Talc 1 1
Drilling Mechanism
Drilling & Blasting Method
Drilling pattern
◦ Position of explosive
◦ Filled holed (with charge/cartridge and stemming)
◦ Timing of explosion
◦ Strength of explosive (Powder factor)
◦ Amount of explosive to fracture a cubic yard of rock (spacing x spacing
x depth of blast hole)

Overburden
◦ Stiffness ratio, SR = Bench/Burden

Quality of rocks ( ɤrock)

Breaking Mechanism

1. Borehole/blasthole
2. Pulverized zone
3. Radial crack with preferential growth parallel to 1 (principal stress)
Effect of burden on
Blasting Effectiveness
Effect of burden
Effect of burden
 Blasthole Design Calculation
Burden
 2SGe 
B    1.5  De
 SGr  B = burden (ft)
SGe = specific gravity of the explosive
Stv
B  0.67 De 3 SGr = specific gravity of the rock
SGr De = diameter of explosive (inch)
Stv = relative bulk strength (to ANFO)
Bcorrected  B  K d  K s
Kd = correction factor for rock deposition
Ks = correction factor for rock structure
 Stemming  Subdriling
T  0.7  B J  0.3 B
Blasthole Design Calculation
 Spacing
Type of initiation SR = L/B Spacing
L  2B
Instantaneous 1 < SR < 4 S
3
initiation >4 S = 2B
L  7B
1 < SR < 4 S
8
Delayed initiation
>4 S = 1.4B

 Presplitting
Dh2
d ec  Presplit is a technique for creating
28 an internal free face
dec = explosive load (pounds/ft)
Sp  10Dh Dh = diameter of blasthole (inch)
Sp = presplit blasthole spacing (inch)
Burden distance correction factor
Rock Deposition Kd
Bedding Steeply dipping into cut 1.18
Bedding steeply dipping into face 0.95
Other cases of deposition 1.00
Rock Structure Ks
Heavily cracked, frequent weak joints, weakly cemented layers 1.30
Thin, well-cemented layers with tight joints 1.10
Massive intact rock 0.95

Effect of SR on blasting factor

4 and
Stiffness Ratio (SR) 1 2 3
more
Fragmentation Poor Fair Good Excellent
Air Blast Severe Fair Good Excellent
Flyrock Severe Fair Good Excellent
Ground vibration Severe Fair Good Excellent
Explosive loading density chart (pound per ft of column)
Drilling Pattern
Drilling Pattern
Drilling Pattern
Explosive
High explosive  detonation velocity > speed of sound in unreacted
material
Low explosive  detonation velocity < speed of sound in unreacted
material
Black Powder (low explosive)
◦ Sodium nitrate, sulfur, charcoal
ANFO (high explosive)  0.8 gram/cm3
◦ Ammonium nitrate (NH4OH) – fertilizer
◦ Fuel Oil (CH)
◦ 3 NH4NO3 + CH2 = 3 N2 + 7 H2O + CO2 + (CO + NO2)
ammonium diesel o – 400o F
nitrate fuel Heated up to 300 will explode

Dynamite (High Explosive)  1.4 gram/cm3

Gelatins (water gel)
Explosive - Charger
primacord

stemming charge
Explosive characteristics
Strength  energy content of the explosive
Sensitivity  amount of energy input necessary to cause to detonate
Velocity  speed at which the detonation wave moves through the
column of explosive

Water resistance  ability to detonate after exposed to water

Flammability  ease on initiation from spark, fire, flame
Generation of toxic fume  amount of toxic gases produced during
detonation process (CO, NO2, NO3)

Bulk density  measured in weight per unit volume

Vibration mitigation
Blasting may affect surrounding (sub) structures, e.g, building, utility
lines
When explosive detonates, produces elastic wave within rock formation
Safe distance Ds > 50 (or 60)

d
Ds 
W
Ds = scaled distance (non-dimensional)
d = distance from shot to a structure (feet)
W = maximum charge weight per delay (pounds)
Drilling & Blasting Safety

lack of blast area

security
flyrock

premature blast

misfire

others
tunneling
Tunnel application

Roadways and railways

◦Under mountainous area
◦Underwater / undersea
◦Underground city
Waterways and powerhouse
Mining
Utility installation  micro-tunneling
Tunnel Transportation System
Some facts about tunneling projects

Seikan (Japan 74,240 ft (52,800 m)

◦ Railway
◦ 168,000 tons of steels = 4 Petronas Towers

Chunnel (GBR – France) 163,680 ft (49,594 m)

◦ Railway (two-way approach)

Boston Big Dig (USA) 18,480 ft (5,600 m)

◦ Roadways underneath Boston
Tunneling Methods
Cut and Cover
Sunken Tube
Shielding
Drilling and Blasting
Tunnel Boring Machine
 Selection of Tunneling Methods
 Required shape of tunnel
 Circular  ideal for resisting internal pressure; easy to excavate by TBM
 Horseshoe  flat floor permit traffic for mucking
 Vertical sidewall  good for transportation tunnel
 Basket handle  good for wide section
 Rectangular  typically for waterways
 Ground conditions
 Tunneling in Soft ground  easy but requires lining
 Tunneling in Rock
 Tunneling in combination
 Depth and location of tunnel
 Shallow  cut and cover
 Deep  tunneling
Tunnel shapes
Tunnel in Rock Formation
Anticline
◦ Water flows away from tunnel, but greater lateral pressure at tunnel portal

Syncline
◦ Water flows into tunnel, and greater lateral pressure at center than at
portal
Geological Considerations
Mineralogy  rock hardness  strength of bit
Petrology  rock formation  over break
◦ Igneous
◦ Sedimentary
◦ Metamorphic

Structural Geology 
◦ Ground water
◦ Geochemistry (chemical composition)

Tunneling is, perhaps, the most uncertain construction

environment  design while constructing
Stages in Tunnel Construction
STAGE I Material Excavation

STAGE II Installation of support for surrounding medium

STAGE III Material handling (mucking)

Cut and Cover
Excavate soil
Erect/construct tunnel body
Cover back / backfill

Cut and cover

Method of tunneling that uses open cut method
• Soil is excavated (open excavation)
• Tubes are inserted
• Back cover with soil
Metode Konstruksi Cut and Cover
Sunken Tube
Construct/fabricate tube
Place tube into desired location
Sunken Tube
Boston Big Dig
Sunken Tube - Oresund Floating Tunnel
Shield Tunneling
Shielding is installed to provide protection
while excavation is advancing
Shield Tunneling
Setiabudi underpass (Wiratman, 1997?)
Shield Tunneling
Drill & Blast in Tunneling

Drilling & blasting is part of the excavation

Highly depends on rock formation
Support depends on hanging time
Face & bench method
Full blast method
 Drilling & Blasting Operating Cycle
drilling wiring
explosive

measuring
blasting

clearing

lining &
strengthening
mucking
Tunnel Lining
Pre-cast / pre-fabricated lining (concrete or metal/steel), w/
or w/o ribs

Sprayed concrete (shotcrete) w/ or w/o anchorage

Shield Panel
Ground Anchorages
Boring (horizontal drilling)

For soft soil tunneling

Tunnel boring machine (TBM)
NATM (New Austrian Tunneling Method)
Micro-tunneling
Directional drilling
TBM
Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM)
Tunnel Boring Machine
Horizontal Pipe jacking (micro-tunneling)
Directional Drilling / Pipe Jacking

VIDEO
MICROTUNNELING
Choosing Tunneling Method

Advantage of D&B over TBM

◦ Less prefect geotechnical data is required
◦ Can be for any shape
◦ (relatively) lower cost
◦ Good for tunneling of < 5,000 ft

Disadvantage of D&B over TBM

◦ Cyclic operation (time for each round) is longer
◦ Overbreak up to 20%
◦ Blast vibration

More information on: http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_boring_machine