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16

VECTOR CALCULUS
VECTOR CALCULUS

16.9
The Divergence Theorem

In this section, we will learn about:


The Divergence Theorem for simple solid regions,
and its applications in electric fields and fluid flow.
INTRODUCTION

In Section 16.5, we rewrote Green’s Theorem


in a vector version as:

C
F  n ds   div F( x, y) dA
D

where C is the positively oriented


boundary curve of the plane region D.
INTRODUCTION Equation 1

If we were seeking to extend this theorem to


3
vector fields on ° , we might make the guess
that
 F  n dS   div F( x, y, z) dV
S E

where S is the boundary surface


of the solid region E.
DIVERGENCE THEOREM

It turns out that Equation 1 is true,


under appropriate hypotheses, and
is called the Divergence Theorem.
DIVERGENCE THEOREM

Notice its similarity to Green’s Theorem


and Stokes’ Theorem in that:

 It relates the integral of a derivative of a function


(div F in this case) over a region to the integral
of the original function F over the boundary of
the region.
DIVERGENCE THEOREM

At this stage, you may wish to review


the various types of regions over which
we were able to evaluate triple integrals
in Section 15.6
SIMPLE SOLID REGION

We state and prove the Divergence Theorem


for regions E that are simultaneously of types
1, 2, and 3.
We call such regions simple solid regions.

 For instance, regions bounded by ellipsoids or


rectangular boxes are simple solid regions.
SIMPLE SOLID REGIONS

The boundary of E is a closed surface.

We use the convention, introduced in


Section 16.7, that the positive orientation
is outward.

 That is, the unit normal vector n is directed


outward from E.
THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM

Let:
 E be a simple solid region and let S be
the boundary surface of E, given with positive
(outward) orientation.
 F be a vector field whose component functions
have continuous partial derivatives on an open
region that contains E.

Then,
 F  dS   div FdV
S E
THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM

Thus, the Divergence Theorem states


that:

 Under the given conditions, the flux of F


across the boundary surface of E is equal
to the triple integral of the divergence of F
over E.
GAUSS’S THEOREM

The Divergence Theorem is sometimes


called Gauss’s Theorem after the great
German mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss
(1777–1855).

 He discovered this theorem during


his investigation of electrostatics.
OSTROGRADSKY’S THEOREM

In Eastern Europe, it is known as


Ostrogradsky’s Theorem after the Russian
mathematician Mikhail Ostrogradsky
(1801–1862).

 He published this result in 1826.


THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM Proof

Let F = P i + Q j + R k

P Q R
 Then, div F   
x y z

 Hence,  div F dV


E

P Q R
  dV   dV   dV
E
x E
y E
z
THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM Proof

If n is the unit outward normal of S,


then the surface integral on the left side
of the Divergence Theorem is:

 F  dS   F  n dS
S S

   P i  Q j  R k   n dS
S

  P i  n dS   Q j  n dS   R k  n dS
S S S
THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM Proof—Eqns. 2-4

So, to prove the theorem, it suffices to prove


these equations:
P
S P i  n dS  
E
x
dV

Q
S Q j  n dS  
E
y
dV

R
S R k  n dS  
E
z
dV
THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM Proof

To prove Equation 4, we use the fact that


E is a type 1 region:

E
 x, y, z   x, y   D, u  x, y   z  u
1 2  x, y 

where D is the projection of E


onto the xy-plane.
THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM Proof

By Equation 6 in Section 15.6,


we have:

R  u2  x, y  R 
 dV      x, y, z  dz  dA
E
z D  u1  x , y  z

THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM Proof—Equation 5

Thus, by the Fundamental Theorem of


Calculus,

R

E
z
dV

   R  x, y, u2  x, y    R  x, y, u1  x, y    dA
D
THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM Proof

The boundary surface S consists of


three pieces:
 Bottom surface S1
 Top surface S2
 Possibly a vertical
surface S3, which lies
above the boundary
curve of D
(It might happen that
S3 doesn’t appear,
as in the case of
a sphere.)
THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM Proof

Notice that, on S3, we have k ∙ n = 0,


because k is vertical and n is horizontal.

 Thus,

 R k  n dS
S3

  0 dS  0
S3
THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM Proof—Equation 6

Thus, regardless of whether there is


a vertical surface, we can write:

 R k  n dS   R k  n dS   R k  n dS
S S1 S2
THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM Proof

The equation of S2 is z = u2(x, y), (x, y) D,


and the outward normal n points upward.

 So, from Equation


10 in Section 16.7
(with F replaced by
R k), we have:
 R k  n dS 
S2

 R  x, y, u  x, y   dA
D
2
THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM Proof

On S1, we have z = u1(x, y).


However, here, n points downward.

 So, we multiply
by –1:

 R k  n dS 
S1

  R  x, y, u1  x, y   dA
D
THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM Proof

Therefore, Equation 6 gives:

 R k  n dS
S

   R  x, y, u2  x, y    R  x, y, u1  x, y    dA
D
THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM Proof

Comparison with Equation 5 shows


that:
R
S R k  n dS  
E
z
dV

 Equations 2 and 3 are proved in a similar manner


using the expressions for E as a type 2 or type 3
region, respectively.
THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM

Notice that the method of proof of


the Divergence Theorem is very similar
to that of Green’s Theorem.
DIVERGENCE Example 1

Find the flux of the vector field


F(x, y, z) = z i + y j + x k
over the unit sphere
x2 + y 2 + z2 = 1

 First, we compute the divergence of F:


  
div F   z    y    x   1
x y z
DIVERGENCE Example 1

The unit sphere S is the boundary of


the unit ball B given by: x2 + y2 + z2 ≤ 1

 So, the Divergence Theorem gives the flux


as:

 F  dS   div F dV  1dV


S B B

4
 V  B    1 
4 3
3
3
DIVERGENCE Example 2

Evaluate 
S
F  dS
where:
2
 F(x, y, z) = xy i + (y2 + exz ) j + sin(xy) k

 S is the surface of
the region E bounded
by the parabolic
cylinder z = 1 – x2
and the planes
z = 0, y = 0, y + z = 2
DIVERGENCE Example 2

It would be extremely difficult to evaluate


the given surface integral directly.

 We would have to evaluate four surface integrals


corresponding to the four pieces of S.
 Also, the divergence of F is much less complicated
than F itself:

div F   xy  
x y

 2 xz 2
y e


  sin xy 
z
 y  2 y  3y
DIVERGENCE Example 2

So, we use the Divergence Theorem to


transform the given surface integral into
a triple integral.

 The easiest way to evaluate the triple integral


is to express E as a type 3 region:
E
 x , y , z  1  x  1, 0  z  1  x 2
, 0  y  2  z
DIVERGENCE Example 2

Then, we have:

 F  dS
S

  div F dV
E

  3 y dV
E
1 1 x 2 2 z
 3   y dy dz dx
1 0 0
DIVERGENCE Example 2

2  z
2
1 1 x 2

 3  dz dx
1 0 2
1 x 2
3 1  2  z 
3

    dx
2 1  3  0

    x  1  8 dx
 1 3
1 2
21  
    x  3 x  3 x  7  dx  184
1
6 4 2
0 35
UNIONS OF SIMPLE SOLID REGIONS

The Divergence Theorem can also


be proved for regions that are finite
unions of simple solid regions.

 The procedure is similar to the one we used


in Section 16.4 to extend Green’s Theorem.
UNIONS OF SIMPLE SOLID REGIONS

For example, let’s consider the region E


that lies between the closed surfaces S1
and S2, where S1 lies inside S2.

 Let n1 and n2 be outward normals


of S1 and S2.
UNIONS OF SIMPLE SOLID REGIONS

Then, the boundary surface of E is:


S = S1 S2
Its normal n is given
by:
n = –n1 on S1
n = n2 on S2
UNIONS OF SIMPLE SOLID RGNS. Equation 7

Applying the Divergence Theorem to S,


we get:

 div F dV   F  dS
E S

  F  n dS
S

  F   n1  dS   F  n 2 dS
S1 S2

   F  dS   F  dS
S1 S2
APPLICATIONS—ELECTRIC FIELD

Let’s apply this to the electric field


(Example 5 in Section 16.1):

Q
E x  3
x
x

where S1 is a small sphere with


radius a and center the origin.
APPLICATIONS—ELECTRIC FIELD

You can verify that div E = 0 (Exercise 23).

Thus, Equation 7 gives:

 E  dS   E  dS   div E dV
S2 S1 E

  E  dS
S1

  E  n dS
S2
APPLICATIONS—ELECTRIC FIELD

The point of this calculation is that


we can compute the surface integral
over S1 because S1 is a sphere.
APPLICATIONS—ELECTRIC FIELD

The normal vector at x is x/|x|.

Therefore.

Q  x  Q Q Q
E  n  3 x     4 x  x  2  2
x x x x a

since the equation of S1 is |x| = a.


APPLICATIONS—ELECTRIC FIELD

Thus, we have:

Q
 E  dS   E  n dS  a  dS
S2 S1
2
S1

Q
 2
A  S1 
a
Q
 2 4 a 2

a
 4 Q
APPLICATIONS—ELECTRIC FIELD

This shows that the electric flux of E is 4πεQ


through any closed surface S2 that contains
the origin.

 This is a special case of Gauss’s Law


(Equation 11 in Section 16.7) for a single charge.

 The relationship between ε and ε0 is ε = 1/4πε0.


APPLICATIONS—FLUID FLOW

Another application of the Divergence


Theorem occurs in fluid flow.

 Let v(x, y, z) be the velocity field of a fluid


with constant density ρ.

 Then, F = ρv is the rate of flow per unit area.


APPLICATIONS—FLUID FLOW

Suppose:
P0(x0, y0, z0) is a point in the fluid.
Ba is a ball with center P0 and very small
radius a.

 Then, div F(P) ≈ div F(P0) for all points in Ba


since div F is continuous.
APPLICATIONS—FLUID FLOW

We approximate the flux over the boundary


sphere Sa as follows:

 F  dS   div F dV
Sa Ba

  div F  P0  dV
Ba

 div F  P0  V  Ba 
APPLICATIONS—FLUID FLOW Equation 8

This approximation becomes better as


a → 0 and suggests that:

1
div F  P0   lim  F  dS
a 0 V  B 
a Sa
SOURCE AND SINK

Equation 8 says that div F(P0) is the net rate


of outward flux per unit volume at P0.
(This is the reason for the name divergence.)

 If div F(P) > 0, the net flow is outward near P


and P is called a source.

 If div F(P) < 0, the net flow is inward near P


and P is called a sink.
SOURCE

For this vector field, it appears that the vectors


that end near P1 are shorter than the vectors
that start near P1.

 Thus, the net flow


is outward near P1.

 So, div F(P1) > 0


and P1 is a source.
SINK

Near P2, the incoming arrows are longer


than the outgoing arrows.

 The net flow is inward.

 So, div F(P2) < 0


and P2 is a sink.
SOURCE AND SINK

We can use the formula for F to confirm


this impression.

 Since F = x2 i + y2 j, we have div F = 2x + 2y,


which is positive when y > –x.

 So, the points above the line y = –x


are sources and those below are sinks.

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