SITE ANALYSIS AND

PLANNING
UNIT 1 - INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION TO SURVEY
Scientific process of measuring the dimensions of the
particular area of the earth surface, including its
horizontal distances, directions,angles and
elevations.
Once the survey is taken, it can be used in the map
SURVEYING AND ITS PRINCIPLES

Surveying is an art of determining the relative

positions of various points on, above or below the surface of the
earth by means of direct or indirect measurement of distance,
direction and elevation.
The principles of surveying are:
(i) Working from whole to part.
(ii) To locate a new station by at least two measurements (angular,
linear) from fixed reference points.
NEED FOR SURVEYING:
The primary object of surveying is to prepare a plan
or map to show the relative position of the objects on the surface
of the earth. It is also used to determine the areas, volumes and
other related quantities.
CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEY

PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION:
Plane surveying
Geodetic surveying.
PLANE SURVEY:
Plane surveys are the most commonly practised method
of surveying and treat the earth as a flat or "plane" surface. Good enough
for small-scale surveys in limited areas,The curvature of the earth is neglected.
A line joining any two points is considered straight. The triangle formed by any
three points is considered as plane triangle. It is done on a area less than 250
Km2.
GEODETIC SURVEY:
Measurement of the very large area of the earth that must
take into account for the earth’s curvature. The curvature of the earth is taken.
A line joining any two points is considered as curved line. The triangle formed
by any three points is considered as spherical triangle. It is done on a area
greater than 250 Km 2.
CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEY

SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION:
Based on instruments used:
 Surveying by Total Station
 Chain Survey
 Theodolite Survey
 Compass Survey
 Plane Tabling
 Tacheometric survey
 EDM survey
 Remote sensing
Based on methods:
 Triangulation
 Traversing
Based on object:
 Geological Survey(Object is to survey different strata in the earth crust)
 Mine Survey (Mineral wealth such as coal, gold)
 Military Survey(Points of strategic importance)
CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEY

Based upon Nature of field:

 Land Survey:
1. Topographical Survey
2. Cadastral Survey

 Marine Survey
 Astronomical Survey
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS AND ITS APPLIACTION

BASED ON INSTRUMENTS USED:

 Surveying by Total Station
 Chain Survey
 Theodolite Survey
 Compass Survey
 Plane Tabling
 Tacheometric survey
 EDM remote sensing
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

TOTAL STATION:
Total station is a surveying equipment combination
of Electromagnetic Distance Measuring Instrument and electronic
theodolite. It is also integrated with microprocessor, electronic data collector
and storage system. The instrument can be used to measure horizontal and
vertical angles as well as sloping distance of object to the instrument.
COMPONENTS OF TOTAL STATION:
EDM
Electronic theodolite
On-board micro-processor
Data collector(built in or separate unit)
Data storage(internal or memory card)
prisms
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TOTAL STATION:

These instruments are measuring the distance of prism pole
mounted with prisms with the help of laser beam or infrared rays.
These signals are emitted by the instrument EDM and
reflected back to the instruments by the prism mounted on the prism
poles.
The time travel between emission and reception helps to
calculate the distance as the speed of these signals are precisely
known,D=(t/2)xV, D=distance, t=total time taken,v=velocity.
This information is also stored in the electronic notebook. At
the end of the day or whenever electronic note book is full, the
information stored is downloaded to computers.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS – TOTAL STATION
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

TOTAL STATION FEATURES:

Total solution for surveying work,
Most accurate and user friendly,
Gives position of a point (x, y and z) w. r. t. known point (base point),
Measures distance and angles and displays coordinates,
EDM is fitted inside the telescope,
Digital display,
On board memory to store data,
Compatibility with computers,
Measures distance and angles and displays coordinates,
Auto level compensator is available,
Can work in lesser visibility also,
Can measure distances even without prismatic target for lesser distances,
water proof,
On board software are available,
Can be used for curve layout after feeding data.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

TOTAL STATION CAN BE USED FOR:

General purpose angle measurement
General purpose distance measurement
Slope measurement
Provision of control surveys
Contour and detail mapping
Setting out and construction work
Angular accuracy up to 1”
Distance measured with laser up to 2 KM
Distance measured with infrared rays up to 4 KM.( with single prism)
Capable of storing up to 20,000 points.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

Advantages of Total Station over Conventional instruments:

Traditional survey methods are laborious and time consuming
Fully automatic electronic measurement
Digital display of staff reading and distance
Data storage in instrument possible
Direct transfer to personal computer of data stored in instruments
Online operation through integrated interface to computer
Disadvanges:
Total stations are dependent on batteries and electronics.
The LCD screen does not work well when it is cold.
Battery life is also short, batteries and electronics both do not work well when wet.
Loss of data is an important consideration.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

CHAIN SURVEY
Chain survey is the simplest method of surveying. In this
survey only measurements are taken in the field, and the rest work,
such as plotting calculation etc. are done in the office. This is most
suitable adapted to small plane areas with very few details. If
carefully done, it gives quite accurate results. The necessary
requirements for field work are chain, tape, ranging rod, arrows
and sometime cross staff. The chain is composed of 100 or 150 pieces of
galvanized mild steel wire, 4mm in diameter called links
 It is a system of surveying in which sides of various triangles are
measured directly in the field and NO angular measurements are
taken.
 It is the simplest kind of Surveying
 It is adopted when Level of accuracy required is not high
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

VARIOUS TYPES OF CHAINS: METRIC CHAIN

Metric chains
Gunter` s chain or surveyors chain
Engineers chain
Revenue chain
Steel band or Band chain

INSTRUMENTS FOR CHAINING:

METRIC CHAIN:
Metric chains are made in lengths 20m and 30m. Tallies are fixed at every five-meter length
and brass rings are provided at every meter length except where tallies are attached.
ARROWS:
Arrows are made of good quality hardened
steel wire of 4 mm diameter. The arrows are made 400 mm
in length, are pointed at one and the other end is bent
into a loop or circle
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

RANGING RODS:
Ranging rods are used to range some intermediate points
in the survey line The length of the ranging rod is either 2m or 3m. They are
shod at bottom with a heavy iron point. Ranging rods are divided into
equal parts 0.2m long and they are painted alternately black and white or
red and white or red, white and black. When they are at considerable
distance, red and white or white and yellow flags about 25 cm square
should be fastened at the top.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

CROSS STAFF:
The simplest instrument used for setting out a right angle. The common forms of cross staff
are: open cross staff, french cross staff, adjustable cross staff.
OFFSET ROD:
The offset rod is used for measuring the off set of short lengths. It is similar to a
ranging rod and is usually of 3m.
lengths.
PEGS:
These are rods made from hard timber
and tapered at one end, generally 25mm or 30mm
square and 150mm long wooden pegs are used
to mark the position of the station on.
PLUMB BOB:
While chaining along sloping
Ground is required to transfer the points to the ground.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

Chain survey executed in the following steps:

Reconnaissance:
The preliminary inspection of the area to be surveyed is called reconnaissance. The
surveyor inspects the area to be surveyed, survey or prepares index sketch or key plan. Walk the
whole area and thoroughly examine the ground, note the position of boundaries, road, and river
etc., various difficulties to chain lines, select stations, and prepare neat sketches called index sketches
or key plan.
Marking stations:
Stations are marked with ranging rod, or wooden peg, driving a nail or spikes if hard
surface, or embedding stone with a cross mark.
Reference sketches:
After marking the station should be referenced i.e. located by measurement called ties
taken from 3 permanent points which are easily identified such as corner of building.
Running survey line:
After the preliminary work, chaining is started from base line and carried
throughout all the line of the framework continuously. So chain is laid and kept lying, offset are taken
to locate the nearby details. Make ranging wherever necessary. Measure the change and offset and
enter in the field book.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

CHAIN SURVEY IS SUITABLE:

 Ground is fairly level and simple
 Plans are required on large scale e.g. fields
 When area is small in extent
CHAIN SURVEY IS NOT SUITABLE:
 For Large Areas
 When too many details are required
 Wooded countries
 Undulating areas
TRIANGULATION:
 Since the triangle is a simple plane geometrical figure, it can be plotted from the measured
length of its sides alone; therefore, the principle of chain survey is Triangulation.
 In chain surveying, a NETWORK of TRIANGLES is preferred.
 Preferably all the sides of a triangle should be nearly equal having each angle nearly 60 to
ensure minimum distortion due to errors in measurement of sides and plotting.
 Generally such an ideal condition is not practical always. Usually attempt should be made to
have WELL CONDITIONED TRIANGLES in which no angle is smaller than 30 and no angle is
greater than 120.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

Procedure for Measurement of an Area by Chain Triangulation:

 Let ABCDE be the given field whose area is to be measured, fix the pegs at
A, B, C, D & E.
 Divide area into three triangles ADE, ABD and BCD by joining AD and BD.
 Measure the lengths AB, BC , CD, DE, EA, AD and BD.
 Calculate the area of the triangles.
 The sum of the areas of the three triangles is the area of the given field.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

To measure the distance between two points on a level ground by ranging.

INSTRUMENTS:
Chain 20m / 30m 1 No.
Arrows 10 Nos.
Ranging rods 04 Nos.
Pegs 2 Nos.
1.Fix the ranging rods at the two
given stations, where pegs are
already driven on the ground.
2.The follower stand behind station A and
directs the leader, with ranging rod to come in
line with AB by signals of ranging.
3. When the ranging rod comes in the line of AB the follower directs the leader to fix
the ranging rod in position.
4. Let the intermediate point be C which should be less than 20m / 30 m .
5. Now the leader taken another ranging rod and stands between A and B about 2/3
distance from A
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

6.The follower directs the leader to come in line of AB by using signals of ranging.
7. As and when the point is located in the line of AB the follower instructs to fix the
ranging rod in position.
8. Let the other intermediate position be D which is less than 20 m / 30 m from B
9.Now A, B, C and D are in one line. Now the leader and follower measure the distance
by measuring along A, C, D, B.
RESULT: The distance between AB = __________ meter.
FIELD APPLICATION:
1.It can be extended to measure the lengths of more than two chain lengths.
2.By measuring the boundaries of given traverse the areas can be calculated.
3.The features can be located either by measuring oblique or perpendicular offset
from the chain line.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

COMPASS SURVEY:
The branch of surveying in which direction of survey line
are determine by a compass and their length by a chain or tape is called
compass surveying. This type of survey can be used to measure large areas
with reasonable speed and accuracy.
INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:
Prismatic Compass, Chain, Arrows, and Ranging rods.
prismatic compass:
Prismatic compass is a instrument used to measure the bearing of a line. It
consists of a magnetic needle pivoted at the center and is free to rotate.
The area below the magnetic needle is graduated between 0 to 360
degrees. The instrument cover consists of a sighting vane and vertical hair to
align the compass along the instrument station and the staff station.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

PRINCIPLES OF COMPASS SURVEY:

The principle of compass survey is traversing. Which involves the
series of connected lines the magnetic bearings of the lines are measured
by prismatic compass and the distance are measured by chain.such survey
does not requied the the formulation of the network of the triangle.
Compass survey is recomanded when the area is large,undulated
and crowded with many details.
Compass surveying is not recomanded for
the areas where location attraction is suspected due
to the presence of magnetic substances like steel
structures,iron ore deposits,electric cables conveying
currents and so on.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

PROCEDURE:
After conducting the reconnaissance survey, the surveyor should
fix up the positions of all the station, around the given field as
usual. The survey may be conducted under the following
methods.
(1) Radiation method

(2) Intersection method

SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

RADIATION METHODS:
In this method, the approximate centre of the field is
located and the compass is exactly centered over that stations, say ‘O’ by
dropping a small pebble to fall from the centre of the compass and hit the
peg. Then make the compass needle horizontal by adjusting the ball and
socket joint. After centering and leveling of the compass, raise the sighting
vane and prism of compass. The compass box is rotated until the ranging
rod at first station ‘A’ hairline of object vane and slit of the sighting vane
are in the same line. Then take the reading accurately and note down the
bearing of line OA. In the similar way take bearing of lines OB, OC, OD
and OE by rotating the compass box in the respective directions. The
readings will indicate the angles with which the line, OA, OB, OC, OD and
OE makes with the north line. Then with the help of chain, measure the
distances OA, OB, OC, OD and OE on ground, after proper ranging. By
knowing the observed bearings and distances to all the stations from the centre ‘O’ the
plan of the plot can be easily drawn by adopting a suitable scale. Join the station points
A, B, C, D, E which will indicate the plan of the plot. The area enclosed by the plot may
be calculated by splitting the plan into number of triangles.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

INTERSECTION METHOD:
This method poses a simple change from the previous
method. In this method mark two points (P & Q) at a distance of 10 to 15 m
in such a way that all the station points around the boundary of the plot can
be seen clearly (either inside the area or outside). Set the compass over the
station point ‘P’ and complete the temporary adjustments. Observe
bearings to all the station points, (A, B, C, D & E) in clockwise direction. Take
also the fore bearing of the line ‘PQ’. Shift the compass to the other station
‘Q’ and complete the temporary adjustments and observed the back
bearing of the line ‘QP’. Rotate the compass box to all other station points,
(A, B, C, D & E) and note down all the bearings clearly. Also measure the
base line distance (PQ). In this method there is no necessity of measuring the
internal distances.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

With observed data, plot the

observed bearings taken at P and project the
corresponding rays. Set the distance PQ and get point
‘Q’ by taking a suitable scale. Then draw rays from
station ‘Q’ to all the station points. The intersection of
ray pa and qa will give the location of station ‘A’.
Similarly locate other stations B, C, D & E. For a check,
measure the distance AB, of one side, and compare
them with the plotted lengths. Then field can be divided
into number of triangles and the area can be
calculated, summering up all the areas we will get the
total area of the field.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

THEODOLITE SURVEY:
A surveying instrument and precision instrument for
measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical planes.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

USES OF THEODOLITE:
Mapping applications and in the construction industry
Measurement of Horizontal and vertical angle
Measurement of magnetic bearing of lines
Locating points on line
Prolonging survey lines
Determining difference in elevation
Setting out curves
Aligning tunnels
Mining works etc.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

The Lower Plate:

It is the base of the whole instrument. It houses
the foot screws and the bearing for the vertical
axis. It is rigidly attached to the tripod mounting
assembly and does not move.
Horizontal Scale (Circle): It is a full 400g scale.
It is often placed between the upper and lower
plates It is capable of full independent rotation
about the trunnion axis.
The Upper Horizontal Clamp and Tangent
Screw: used during a sequence or “round” of
horizontal angle measurements.
The Lower Horizontal Clamp and Tangent
Screw: These must only be used at the start of
horizontal angle measurements to set the first
reading to zero
Circle Reading and Optical Micrometer: The
vertical and horizontal circles require
illumination in order to read them. This is usually
provided by small circular mirrors
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

THEODOLITE HORIZONTAL METHOD:

Ordinary method
Repitation method
Reiteration method

ORDINARY METHOD:
To measure the horizontal angle AOB change the face
of the instrument and repeat the whole process.the mean of the two vernier
readings gives the second value of the angle AOB which should be
approximately or exactly equal to the previous value.
the mean of two values of the angle AOB,one with
face left and the other with face right,gives the required angle free from
all instrumental errors.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

REPITATION METHOD:
To measure the angle by repitations.set up the theodolite
at starting point O and level at accuracy. Measure the horizontal angle
AOB.loosen the lower clamp and turn the telescope clock-wise untill the object A
is sighted again.bisect B accurately By using the upper tangent screw.the
verniers will read now the twice the value of the angle now.
REITERATION METHOD:
This method is another precise
and comparetively less tedious method of measuring
thee horizontal angles. It is generally preferred when
several angles are to be measured at the particular
station.this method consists in measuring several angles
succesively and finnaly closing the horizon at the starting
point.the final reading of the vernier A should be same as
its initial readings.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

PLANE TABLE SURVEY:

Plane Table Surveying is a graphical method of survey in which the field
observations and plotting are done simultaneously. It is simple and cheaper than
theodolite survey. It is most suitable for small scale maps. In case of plane table surveying
Geometrical conditions of site are manuscript in the map sheet using plane table and alidade
after that topographic details are arranged on the map.
Equipment Used in Plane Table Survey:
 General equipment used for conducting plane table survey are
 Plane table
 Alidade for sighting
(telescopic or simple)
 Plumb bob and plumb fork
 Compass
 Spirit level
 Chain
 Ranging rods
 Tripod
 Drawing sheet and drawing tools
 Paper clips or screws
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

METHOD OF SETTING UP THE PLANE TABLE:

To perform the plane table survey one has to follow the following
procedure at every plane table set-up at various station
(a) Fixing the plane table to the tripod stand
(b)Setting up and temporary adjustments:
Leveling the plane table with the help of spirit level
Centering with the help of plumbing fork
Orientation by trough compass or by back sighting
Sighting the points with the help of Alidade
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

Methods of plane tabling surveying:

Generally there are four methods are
available to perform plane table
surveying. They are
 Radiation
 Intersection
 Traversing
 Resection

RADIATION:
In this method, plane
table is located at one point “o” as
shown in fig. and perform the whole
from that point. From point O, sight the
points A,B,C,D and E using alidade,
locate and plot the points as a,b,c,d
and e in the drawing sheet.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

Intersection:
In this method we
can locate the point by plotting
two rays from two known
stations. As shown in figure, P
and Q are the known station.
First the equipment is placed on
P and plot the lines by sighting
the stations A, B and Q. then
shift the equipment to station Q
and plot the lines by sighting
stations A, B and P. Finally, the
intersection of A and B rays is
the required location of point of
intersection.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

Traversing:
Traversing is
the connection of series of straight
lines. In case of traversing, plane
table is located at one point for
suppose A as shown below. From that
point sight towards B and measure
the distance AB. Then shift the plane
table to point B and sight towards A
and measure BA. Average distance
of AB and BA are plotted to scale in
drawing sheet. Then Sight the point
C from B and measure BC and
repeat the same procedure until last
point. Conduct some checks at some
points. Finally traverse lines are
plotted on the drawing sheet.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

Resection:
Resection is the process/method of finding the
position of a station where plane table is placed. Sights are
taken towards the known and visible points and rays are
plotted.
Procedure :
First of all the plane table is oriented correctly by one of the
four given methods:
Orientation by trough compass
Orientation by back sighting
Orientation by two point problem
Orientation by three point problem
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

ORIENTATION BY TOUGH COMPASS:

Let a and
b be the plotted positions of A and B
of two well defined points in the
field. Keeping the through compass
along north direction marked on the
drawing sheet table is oriented on
station P, the position of which is to
be found on paper. The resectors Aa
and Bb are drawn to locate ‘p’ the
plotted position of station point P.
This method gives satisfactory results,
if the area is not influenced by local
attractions. It is used for small scale
mapping only.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

ORIENTATION BY BACK SIGHTING:

the scheme of
resection after orientation by back
sighting. From station A, the position
of B is plotted as ‘b’ and ray has
been taken to station P as ap′. Then
plane table is set at P and oriented
by back sighting A, line AP is not
measured but the position of P is
obtained on the paper by taking
resection Bb.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

ORIENTATION BY TWO POINT PROBLEM:

The problem of finding
plotted position of the station point occupied
by the plane table with the help of plotted
positions of two well defined points is known
as solving two point problem.
Let A and B be two well defined points like lightening conductor
or spire of church, the plotted positions a and b already
known. Now the problem is to orient the table at P so that
by resection its plotted position p can be obtained. The
following steps may be followed to solve this problems:
1. Select a suitable point Q near P such that the angles PAQ
and PBQ are not accute.
2. Roughly orient the table at Q and draw the resectors Aa
and Bb to get the point ‘q’.
3.Draw the ray qp and locate p1 with estimated distance
QP.
4. Shift the plane table to P and orient the table by back
sighting to Q.
5. Draw the resector Aa to get ‘p’.
6. Draw the ray pB. Let it intersect line bq at b1.
7. The points b and b1 are not coinciding due to the angular
error in the orientation of table. The angle bab, is the
angular error in orientation. To correct it,
 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

Fix a ranging rod at R along ab, Unclamp the

table and rotate it till line ab sights ranging rod
at R. Then clamp the table. This gives the correct
orientation of the table which was used in
plotting the points A and B.
8. The resectors Aa and Bb are drawn to get the
correct plotted position ‘p’ of the station P
Resection after Solving Three Point Problem:
Locating the plotted position of a station point
using observations to three well defined points
whose plotted positions are known, is called
solving three point problem.
Let A, B, C be three well defined objects on the
field whose plotted positions a, b and c are
known. Now the problem is to locate plotted
position of the station point P. Any one of the
following methods can be used.
(i) Mechanical (Tracing paper) method,
(ii) Graphical method, or
(iii) Trial and error method.
(i) Mechanical Method: This method is known as
tracing paper method since it needs a tracing
paper. The method involved the following steps
 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

Set the table over station P and by observation approximately orient the table.
Fix the tracing paper on the plane table and select P approximately, say as p′.
From p′, draw p′ A, p′ B and p′ C. These lines may not pass through the
plotted positions a, b and c since the orientation is not exact.
Loosen the tracing paper and rotate it so that the rays pass through
respective points a, b and c. Now prick the point p′ to get the plotted
position ‘p’ of the station P.
Keep the alidade along pa and sight A. Then clamp the table. This is correct
orientation.
Check the orientation by observing along pb and pc.
(ii) Graphical Method: The following two graphical methods are available
to solve three point problem:
Bessel’s solution
Method of perpendiculars.
Bessels Solution: It involves the following steps:
1. Keep the bevelled edge of alidade along ba and sight object at A.
Clamp the table and draw
bc′ along the line bc
2. Keep bevelled edge of alidade
along ab,
unclamp the table and sight B. Clamp
the table.
Draw line ac intersecting bc′ at d .
3. Keep the alidade along dc
and bisect C. Clamp the table
[Fig. 14.14(c)]. This gives the
correct orientation.
4. Draw resectors to get ‘p’.
 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

Trial and Error Method:

This method is also known as ‘triangle of
error method’ and ‘Lehman’s Method’. It
involves the following steps:
1. Set the table over point P and orient the
table approximately, just by observation.
2. Draw the rays aA, bB and cC [Fig. 14.16].
If the orientation was perfect, the three rays
would have intersected at a single point, i.e.
at point ‘p’. Otherwise a triangle of error is
formed.
3. To eliminate the triangle of error an
approximate position, ray p′, is selected near
the triangle
of error. Then keeping alidade along p′a
object A is sighted and the table is clamped.
Draw the resectors cC and bB to check the
orientation.
4. Above step is repeated till triangle of
error is eliminated.
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TACHEOMETRIC:
 Tacheometry is the
branch of Surveying in which we
determine the horizontal and vertical
distances with the angular
measurements with an instrument ,
Tacheometer.
 It is not so accurate method of finding
the horizontal distances as the Chaining
is, but it is most suitable for carrying out
the surveys to find the distances in the
hilly area where other methods are
quite difficult being carried out. It is
generally used to locate contours,
hydrographic surveys and laying out
routes of highways, railways etc.
The instruments required for carrying
out the Tacheometric survey are:
(1) A Tacheometer (2) A Stadia Rod.
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Tacheometer:
Tacheometer is more or less a Theodolite installed with a
stadia diaphragm. Stadia diaphragm is equiped with three horizontal hairs
and one vertical hair. So we can take three vertical staff reading at the
same instruments setting, lower most hair reading, central hair reading and
the top hair reading. The difference between the lower hair reading and
the upper hair reading gives the staff intercept(s).
Methods of Tacheometric Survey:
(A) Stadia Hair Method
Fixed Hair Method
Movable Hair Method
(B) Tangential Method
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(A)Stadia Hair Method:

As the name suggests in this method theodolite with the stadia diaphragm is
used to find out the staff intercept between the lower and upper hairs and also the central
hair reading is noted.

Principle of Stadia hair method is that the ratio of the length of perpendicular to the base is
constant in case of similar triangles.
Fixed Hair Method: In the fixed hair method the cross hairs of the diaphragm are kept at a
constant distance apart and the staff intercept varies with the horizontal and vertical position
of the staff with respect to the Theodolite.
Movable Hair Method: In this method the staff intercept between the lower hair and the upper
hair is kept constant by moving the horizontal cross hairs in the vertical plane.
(B)Tangential Method:

In Tangential method only central hair reading is noted down and generally two angular
observations are taken to calculate the horizontal and vertical distances.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

EDM:
Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated
microwave or infrared carrier signal,generated by a small solid-state
emitter within the instrument's optical path, and bounced off of the object to
be measured. The modulation pattern in the returning signal is read and
interpreted by the onboard computer in the EDM. The distance is
determined by emitting and receiving multiple frequencies, and determining
the integer number of wavelengths to the target for each frequency.
Principle:
In EDM the beam of light is the carrier and which is reflected back
from mirror located at the other end. Such instrument are less expensive
because one active instrument and battery are only needed at one end
and instrument at other end is simply a reflecting mirror centered over
ground centre mark.
Hand held EDM:
Very handy
Cheap
Can be used with accuracy of 10mm or so
Rapid measurement
Long range
High accuracy
Measurement of moving target
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

REMOTE SENSING:
 Remote sensing may be defined as art and science of gathering the
information about objects, occurrence or area without having physical
contact with it. Eyesight’s and photographs are common examples of remote
sensing in which artificial light energy from electricity or sunlight is made to
strike an object.
 Light energy consists of electromagnetic waves of all length and intensity.
When electromagnetic wave falls on the object, it is partly
 Absorbed
 Scattered
 Transmitted
 Reflected
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

 By capturing reflected waves with sensors, it is possible to identify the objects. However this
remote sensing has its own limitations in terms of distance and coverage of area at a time.
 As per the photographic survey, in which the photographs are taken from aircrafts and are
used for map making, fall under this category of remote sensing. By using electronic
equipments, the basic remote sensing technique will be extended to identify and quantify
various objects on the earth by observing them from longer distances from the space.
 For this purpose, geostationary satellites are launched in the space, as they rotate around the
earth at the same speed as earth. Depending upon the property of the object, the
electromagnetic waves sent from the satellite reflected energy is different.
 The reflected waves in the bandwidth of infrared, thermal infrared and micro waves are
picked up by sensors mounted on satellite.
Since each feature on the earth has different reflection property, it is possible to identify
these features on the earth with satellite pictures. Data obtained from different satellites will
be transferred to ground stations through RADARS where user analyses to find out the type of
object and the extent of it. This is called image processing.
 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

Application of Remote Sensing:

 There are various applications of remote
sensing which may be grouped into the
following:
 Resource Exploration
 Environmental Study
 Land use
 Site Investigation
 Archaeological Investigation and
 Natural Hazards Study
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

 Resource Exploration: Geologists use remote sensing to study the formation of

sedimentary rocks and identify deposits of various minerals, detect oil fields and
identify underground storage of water. Remote sensing is used for identifying
potential fishing zone, coral reef mapping and to find other wealth from ocean.
 Environmental Study: Remote sensing is used to study cloud motion and predict
rains. With satellite data it is possible to study water discharge from various
industries to find out dispersion and harmful effects, if any, on living animals. Oil
spillage and oil slicks can be studied using remote sensing.
 Land Use: By remote sensing, mapping of larger areas is possible in short time.
Forest area, agricultural area, residential and industrial area can be measured
regularly and monitored. It is possible to find out areas of different crops.
 Site Investigation: Remote sensing is used extensively in site investigations for dams,
bridges, pipelines. It can be used to locate construction materials like sand and
gravel for the new projects.
 Archaeological Investigation: Many structures of old era are now buried under the
ground and are not known. But by studying changes in moisture content and other
characteristics of the buried objects and upper new layer, remote sensors are able
to recognize the buried structures of archaeological importance.
BASED ON METHODS

TRIANGULATION:
Triangulation is the tracing and measurement of a series or network of triangles
in order to determine the distances and relative positions of points spread over an area,
especially by measuring the length of one side of each triangle and deducing its angles and
the length of the other two sides by observation from this baseline.
Triangulation is preferred for hills and undulating areas, since it is easy to establish stations at
reasonable distances apart, with intervisibility
Applications of Triangulation Surveying
 Establishing accurately located control points for plane and geodetic surveys of large areas.
 Establishing accurately located control points in connection with aerial surveying
 Accurate location of engineering projects such as Centre lines, terminal points and shafts for
long tunnels, and Centre lines and abutments for long span bridges.
Triangulation Systems:
A system consisting of triangulation stations connected by a chain of
triangles. The complete fig is called triangulation system or triangulation figure. The most
common type of figures used in a triangulation system are
 Triangles
 Quadrilaterals
 Polygons
BASED ON METHODS

TRAVERSE:
Traversing is that type of survey in which a
number of connected survey lines form the framework
and the directions and lengths of the survey lines are
measured with the help of an angle measuring
instrument and a tape or chain respectively.
TYPES OF SURVEYING
There are two types of traverse surveying. They are:
Closed traverse: When the lines form a circuit which ends
at the starting point, it is known as closed traverse.
Open traverse : When the lines form a circuit ends
elsewhere except starting point, it is said to be an
open traverse.
SUITABILITY:

The closed traverse is suitable for locating the

boundaries of lakes, woods, etc and for survey of
large areas. the open traverse is suitable for
surveying a long narrow strip of land as required for
a road of canal or the coast line.
BASED ON METHODS

METHODS OF TRAVERSING
There are several methods of traversing,
depending on the instruments used in determining the relative
directions of the traverse lines. The following are the principal
methods:
1.Chain traversing
2.Chain and compass traversing
3.Transit type traversing
By fast needle method
By measurement of angles between the lines
4.Plane table traversing
BASED ON METHOD

1.CHAIN TRAVERSING
The method in which the whole work is done with chain and tape is called chain
traversing. No angle measurement is used and the directions of the lines are fixed entirely by
linear measurements Angles fixed by linear or tie measurements are known as chain angles.
The method is unsuitable for accurate work and is generally used if an angle measuring
instrument such as a compass, sextant or theodolite is available.
2.CHAIN AND COMPASS TRAVERSING
In chain and compass traversing, the magnetic bearings of the survey lines are
measured by a compass and the lengths of the lines are measured either with a chain or with
a tape. The direction of magnetic meridian is established at each traverse station
independently. The method is also known as tree or loose needle method.
3.TRAVERSING BY FAST NEEDLE METHOD
The method in which the magnetic bearings of traverse lines are measured by
a theodolite fitted with s compass is called traversing by fast needle method. The direction of
the magnetic meridian is not established at each station but instead, the magnetic bearings of
the lines are measured with reference so that direction of the magnetic meridian established
at the first station. There are three methods of observing the bearings of lines by fast needle
method.
Direct method with transiting
Direct method without transiting
Back bearing method
BASED ON METHOD

TRAVERSING BY DIRECT OBSERVATION OF ANGLES:

In this method, the angles between the lines are directly measured by a
theodolite and the magnetic bearing of other lines can be calculated in this method.
The angles measured at different stations may be either included angles
and deflection angles
TRAVERSING BY INCLUDED ANGLE:
An included angle at a station is either of the two angles formed by two
survey lines meeting there and these angles should be measured clockwise. The
method consists simply in measuring each angle directly form a back sight on the
preceding station. The angled may also be measured by repetition. The angles
measured from back station may be interior or exterior depending on the direction
of progress.
TRAVERSE BY DEFLECTION ANGLES:
A deflection angle is the angle which a survey line makes with the
prolongation of the preceding line. It is designated as right (R) or left (L) according
as it is measured clockwise or anti-clockwise from the prolongation of the previous
line. This type of traversing is more suitable for survey of roads, railways, pipe-lines
etc where the survey lines make small deflection angles.
BASED OB OBJECT

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY:
A geological
survey is the systematic investigation of
the geology beneath a given piece of
ground for the purpose of creating a
geological map or model. Geological
survey methods are based on the
study of the nature, composition, and
age of sedimentary deposits, as well as
tectonic structure of the area, using of
different field and remote sensing
observations, laboratory examinations
and desktop generalization of the
obtained materials.
Use the structure on the left to specify
the search of geological survey
methods.
 BASED ON OBJECT

MINESURVEY:
Mining survey is a specialist area of surveying involvin
g the measurement, representation and managem
ent of data associated with mining operations whi
ch could be the underground and open‐cut mine
workings. These measurements enable new mine w
orks to avoid older and possibly flooded ones, all
ow connections to be made between different und
erground passages and also to establish the boun
daries of mining claims and territories. Mine surv
eyors are responsible for preparing and updati
ng the entire surface and underground plans of
a mine to account for new buildings and other
structures and to keep records of mining operat
ions. They plan the direction and extent of all u
nderground workings and used advanced surve
ying techniques and instruments to give these d
irections underground.
BASED ON NATURE OF FIELD

LAND SURVEY:
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY:
Topographic Surveys are used to identify and map the contours of the
ground and existing features on the surface of the earth or slightly above or below the earth's
surface (i.e. trees, buildings, streets, walkways, manholes, utility poles, retaining walls, etc.). If
the purpose of the survey is to serve as a base map for the design of a residence or building
of some type, or design a road or driveway, it may be necessary to show perimeter boundary
lines and the lines of easements on or crossing the property being surveyed, in order for a
designer to accurately show zoning and other agency required setbacks.
METHODS FOR TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING
Aerial (photogrammetric)
Using aerial photographs to determine distances, elevations, areas, etc for topographic
mapping.
Transit-Stadia
Distance, elevation, and location measurements are taken in the field, recorded in the field
book, and then plotted on paper in the office.
Plane Table
Similar to transit-stadia method except that the data is plotted in the field on paper attached
to a drawing board mounted on a tripod (plane table).
BASED ON NATURE OF FIELD

CONTROLS
Topographic surveys require good controls.
Types of controls
Horizontal
Vertical
The controls are used for the basis of the topographic survey measurements. An error in the control will be
reflected in errors in the position and/or elevation of the topography.
HORIZONTAL CONTROL
It Is provided by two or more points on the ground and precisely fixed in position by distance and direction.
It is the basis for map scale and locating topographic features. For small areas, horizontal control for
topographic work is usually established by a traverse, but sometimes a single straight line may be used.
VERTICAL CONTROL
It Is provided by bench marks in or near the tract to be surveyed.it Is the foundation for correctly portraying
relief and elevation on a map. Vertical controls are usually established by lines of levels starting and closing
on bench marks. A surface of a body of water is a continuous bench mark and may sometimes be used as a
vertical control.
LOCATING DETAILS IN THE FIELD
 The most common methods used to locate a point in the field are:
 One angle and the adjacent distance
 Two distances
 Two angles
BASED ON NATURE OF FIELD

CONTOURS:
The most common method of representing the topography of an
area is to use contour lines. A contour line is an imaginary level line that
connects points of equal elevation.
There are several rules to note when viewing topographic maps:
The rule of Vs: sharp-pointed V usually are in stream valleys, with the
drainage channel passing through the point of the V, with the V pointing
upstream.
The rule of Os: closed loops are normally uphill on the inside and
downhill on the outside, and the innermost loop is the highest area.
Spacing of contours: close contours indicate a steep slope; distant
contours a shallow slope. Two or more contour lines merging indicates a cliff
BASED ON NATURE OF FIELD

Characteristics of Contours:
Closely spaced contours indicate steep slopes
Widely spaced contours indicate moderate slopes
Contours should be labeled to the elevation value
Contours are not shown going through buildings
Contour line do not cross
Depression and hill look the same; note the contour value to distinguish the terrain
Important points can be further defined by including a “spot” elevation
Contour lines tend to parallel each other on uniform slopes
Construction of Contours:
The first step in developing a contour map is measuring the elevations of a group
of points
It will be easier for us to establish a rectangular grid of points (marked with flags)
and measure the elevation
The location of the flag points can be established by taping and checked by
pacing or the odometer
BASED ON NATURE OF FIELD

Cadastral Surveys
Cadastre is a Latin base term which refers to a registry of land
Cadastral Surveying is surveying of land so as to determine and define
Landownership and boundaries. Most people do not take seriously the issue of
surveying their properties before they develop or erect a fence/wall, until they
have found‐out that they have spent so much money on those developments
etc. on someone else’s property or land.
Cadastral survey deals with measurements of land, subdivisions and sectional
tittles. This kind of survey can only be carried‐out by a Professional Land
Surveyor
BASED ON NATURE OF FIELD

Survey methods
There are no prescribed methods that are used in cadastral survey, each survey is diffe
rent from the other and it all depends on the area and information that land survey
ors have. The only requirement is that all cadastral survey must be adequately and
carefully checked. The control must be based on the National Control Network.
All survey instruments can be used for cadastral survey as long as they are accurate.
When using the GPS or photogrammetric techniques, a land surveyor needs to follow
special requirements that are laid down.
The accuracies to which surveys must be carried‐out are prescribed and there are three
classes of surveys:
Class A –
surveys for the determination of the position of reference marks in urban surveys
Class B – surveys in urban and mining titles in respect of precious stones
Class C -
other surveys, including farm surveys and surveys for mining titles in respect of base
minerals.
MEASURING AND DRAWING OUT THE SITE PLAN
FROM THE MEASUREMENT

BASELINE:
A baseline is a straight reference line with respect to which corners of
the building are located on the ground. It may be outer boundary of a
road or curb or boundary of the area or simply a line joining any two
points.
MEASURING AND DRAWING OUT THE SITE PLAN
FROM THE MEASUREMENT

HORIZONTAL CONTROLS:
Horizontal controls are the points that have known co-ordinates
with respect to a specific point. These points are then used to locate other
points such as corners of a layout using various techniques. There should be
plenty of control points so that each point of foundation plan can be
located precisely on the ground.
MEASURING AND DRAWING OUT THE SITE PLAN
FROM THE MEASUREMENT

BATTERBOARDS AND OFFSET PEGS:

Once points specifying the layout are located on ground pegs
are driven in the ground at that spot. Once excavations for foundations
begin, the corner pegs will be lost. To avoid these extra pegs called offset
pegs are used. Batter boards are normally erected near each offset peg
and are used to relocate the points after the excavation has been done.
 MEASURING AND DRAWING OUT THE SITE PLAN
FROM THE MEASUREMENT

LAYING OUT A RECTANGULAR BUILDING

SITE:
Starting from a baseline (line AB in
Figure 4-1) that is parallel to construction,
establish the maximum outer borders (AB,
CD, AC, BD) of the building area.
Suppose we know the co-
ordinates(x,y) of the points X with respect
to point A then we can locate it by
measuring their x distance along line AB
and y distance along line AC and BD
respectively to locate them. These two
points can be joined to make line XX. To
locate point G and H, straight line are set
out using 3-4-5 triangle rule and distance
XG and XH which is known is marked on
those lines. After the four corners (X, X, G.
and H) have been located, drive stakes at
each corner. Dimensions are determined
accurately during each step
 MEASURING AND DRAWING OUT THE SITE PLAN
FROM THE MEASUREMENT

LAYING OUT AN IRREGULAR BUILDING

SITE:
Where the outline of the
building is other than a rectangle, the
procedure in establishing each point is
the same as defined for laying out a
simple rectangle. However, more
points have to be positioned, and the
final proving of the work is more likely
to disclose a small error. When the
building is an irregular shape, it is
sensible to first lay out a large
rectangle which will includes the entire
building or the greater part of it. This
is shown in Figure 4-2 as HOPQ When
this is established, the remaining
portion of the layout will consist of
small rectangles, each of which can be
laid out and shown separately. These
rectangles are shown as LMNP ABCQ,
DEFG, and IJKO in Figure
Geodetic Surveys
 Measurement of the very large area of the earth that must take into
account for the earth’s curvature.
 This survey must be very accurate which included the mountains,
valleys and rivers and small area and also the various forms.
 this means that it is control survey over long distances where measur
ements are taken and the earth’s curvature and atmospheric pressur
es deductions are considered and applied.
GEODETIC SURVEY
 Measurement of the vertical elevation of the
surface being surveyed as well as the artificial
structures on it.
 It is widely used by government and business
Engineering survey
 This type of survey is associated with the engineering d
esign (topographic, layout and as built) It is required in
planning and execution of nearly every form of constru
ction
Topographic survey
The purpose of topographic survey is to gather survey dat
a about the natural and manmade features of the land
as well as its elevations.
 Measurement of the vertical elevation of the surface
being surveyed as well as the artificial structures on it.
 It is widely used by government and business
ENGINEERING SURVEY
 Maps are then prepared from this information. The
work usually consists of the following:
 ‐Establishing horizontal and vertical control that will
serve as reference points for the survey. The most a
ccurate method of establishing the vertical control is
by levelling.
Aerial survey
 Aerial survey is a method of collecting information conducted from a
n airborne platform.
 This is collected by using aerial photography, LiDAR or laser

scanning.It is often recognized similarly as aerophotogrammetry, part

of photogrammetry where the camera is mounted on an aircraft.
 Aerial survey is different to satellite imagery because of its better
resolution, quality and atmospheric conditions.
 Photogrammetry is the practice of determining the geometric proper
ties of objects from photographic images.
 This involves estimating the three dimensional coordinates of points o
n an object.
 These are determined by measurements made in two or more photo
graphic images taken from different positions.
 AERIAL SURVEY
Airborne LiDAR is a highly cost effective means
of collecting detailed topographic survey inform
ation, and offers significant advantages over tr
aditional forms of topographical survey in terms
of speed, access, resolution, accuracy and can
opy penetration, for a variety of applications.
LiDAR –
Light Detection and Ranging is a method of det
ecting distant objects and determining their pos
ition or other characteristics by analysis of pulse
d laser light reflecting from their surfaces. Basic
ally a laser pulse is reflected from a rotating m
irror inside a laser scanner
 AERIAL SURVEY

Aerial surveys are used for:

Archaeology
Agriculture
Land surveys
Mining
Reconnaissance
Fishery surveys
Monitoring vegetation and ground cover
Large scale planning for land development

A 3D visualization can be created by geo‐refer

encing the aerial photos and LiDAR data in the s
ame reference frame. The laser scanners are ei
ther mounted onto airplanes or helicopters,
Hydro graphic survey
 Hydrographic survey is the science of measurement and description of the p
hysical features of the navigable portion of the earth’s surface (seas) and
adjoining coastal areas, with special reference to their use for the purpose
of navigation. Hydrographic surveys support a variety of activities: nautical
charting, port and harbour maintenance (dredging), coastal engineering (
beach erosion and replenishment studies), coastal zone management and o
ffshore resource development.