Engineering Metrology

and Measurements

N.V. Raghavendra
L. Krishnamurthy

© Oxford University Press 2013. All

© Oxford University Press
rights 2013. All rights reserved.
reserved.
 Chapter 10

Miscellaneous Metrology

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved.

 Precision Instruments based on Laser
Principles
Laser has certain additional properties not possessed by ordinary light.
Some of these properties are described below:

 Laser light is monochromatic. It has bandwidth in the range of 0.4-0.5

µm. Stabilized lasers have still narrower bandwidth, with the result
that very high resolution can be achieved during measurement.

 It is coherent. In normal light, the rays are randomly phased, resulting

in partial interference within the beam. In contrast, the laser rays are
all in phase. This produces a coherent beam of light.

 Laser light is naturally collimated. The rays in a laser beam are

perfectly parallel with little divergence and scatter.
 Laser Transducer System
The simplest form of laser measurement consists of a laser, an
interferometer, a reflector and a receiver as shown in figure below
 Co-ordinate Measuring Machine
 The term coordinate measuring machines refers to
instrument/machine that are capable of measuring in all three
orthogonal axes. Such machines are popularly abbreviated as ‘CMM’.

 The CMM enables the location of point coordinates in a three-

dimensional space. It simultaneously captures both dimensions and
orthogonal relationships.

 Another remarkable feature of CMM is its integration with a computer.

Computer provides the additional power to generate the three-
dimensional objects as well as carry out complex mathematical
calculations.

 Complex objects can be dimensionally evaluated with precision and

speed.
Basic Configurations of CMM
 The Probe of a CMM
 The probe is the main sensing element in a
CMM. Generally the probe is ‘contact’
type, that is, it is in physical contact with
the work-piece when the measurements
are taken.

 Contact probes may be either ‘hard’

probes or ‘soft’ probes. However, some
CMMs use non-contact type probe also.

 The stylus is integral with hard probes and

comes in various shapes such as pointed,
conical, ball end, etc.

 Power feed is used to move the probe

along different axes
 Operation of CMM
A modern CMM is very similar in operation to a computer numerical
control (CNC) machine, because both control and measurement
cycles are under the control of the computer. An user friendly
software provides the required functional features. The software
comprises the following three components:

 Move commands which direct the probe to the data collection

points

 Measurement commands which result in the comparison of the

distance traversed to the standard built into the machine for that
axis

 Formatting commands which translate the data into the form

desired for display or print out
 Major Applications of CMM
 CMM can be easily integrated into an automated
inspection system.

 CMM may be interfaced with the CNC (computer

numerical control) machines so that machining is
corrected as the work-piece is inspected.

 Another major use (or abuse?) of CMM is in reverse

engineering. The complete three dimensional geometric
model with all critical dimensions can be built, where
such models do not exist.
 Machine Tool Metrology
 Machine tool metrology is primarily concerned with the geometric tests of
the alignment accuracy of machine tools under static conditions.

 It is important to assess the alignment of various machine parts in relation to

one another.

 It is also important to assess the quality and accuracy of the control devices
and the driving mechanism in the machine tool.

 In addition to geometric tests, practical running tests will also throw light on
the accuracy of a machine tool

 The typical geometric tests conducted for machine tools comprise tests for
straightness, flatness, squareness and parallelism.

 Running tests are done to evaluate the geometric tolerances such as

roundness and cylindricity.
 Straightness

 A line is said to be straight over a given length, if the deviation of various

points on the line from two mutually perpendicular reference planes remains
within stipulated limits.

 The reference planes are so chosen that their intersection is parallel to the
straight line lying between the two specific end points.

 The tolerance on the straightness of a line is defined as the maximum

deviation of the spread of points on either side of the reference line
 Flatness

 Machine tool tables, which hold work-pieces during machining, should

have high degree of flatness. Many metrological devices such as sine
bar invariably need a surface plate, which should have be perfectly flat.

 Flatness error may be defined as the minimum separation of a pair of

parallel planes which will just contain all points on the surface.
 Parallelism

 Parallelism is a term in geometry that refers to a property in Euclidean space of

two or more lines or planes, or a combination of these. The assumed existence
and properties of parallel lines are the basis of Euclid's parallel postulate.

 Two lines in a plane that do not intersect or touch at a point are called parallel
lines. Likewise, a line and a plane, or two planes, in three-dimensional Euclidean
space that do not share a point are said to be parallel.
 Squareness

 From measurement perspective, two planes, two straight lines or a

straight line and a plane are said to be square with each other when
error of parallelism in relation to a standard square does not exceed a
limiting value
 Roundness
 Roundness is defined as a condition
of surface of revolution where all
points of the surface intersected by
any plane perpendicular to a
common axis are equidistant from
the axis

 Roundness error is the radial

distance between the minimum
circumscribing circle and the
maximum inscribing circle, which
contain the profile of the surface at
a section perpendicular to the axis
of rotation.
 Cylindricity

 Cylindricity is a measure of the degree of conformance of a

component to the ideal cylinder for which it is designed.
 Run-Out

 Run-out is a measure of the trueness of running of a body about its axis.

Run-out tolerance is very important for components such as bearings,
machine spindles, axles, etc.
Acceptance test for Machine Tools
 The basic objective of conducting acceptance tests is to ensure that all
relative movements of the machine tool conform well within accepted
limits of deviations from designed values.

 This is important since the dimensions of the work part depends to a

large extent on the accuracy of the mating parts of the machine tool.

 The phrase ‘acceptance test’ is coined to signify the fact that the
machine buyer will inspect the alignment of various parts of the
machine tool in detail and will ‘accept’ the machine tool from the
vendor’s factory only after it conforms to accepted norms.
 Acceptance test for Lathes
Levelling of the Machine:
 Acceptance test for Lathes
True Running of Main Spindle
 Acceptance test for Lathes
Axial Slip of Main Spindle & True Running of Headstock Centre
 Acceptance test for Lathes
Parallelism of Main spindle & True Running of Taper Bore of Main spindle
Acceptance test for Lathes

Recommended Practical Tests

Sl. Operation Work-piece Permissible

No. Diameter Error
1 Chucking 50 mm – 100 mm 0.01 mm
2 Turning between 100 mm – 200 mm 0.02 mm
centres
3 Facing 100 mm – 200 mm 0.02 mm
 Acceptance test for Milling Machines
Axial Slip of Spindle
Acceptance test for Milling Machines
Acceptance test for Milling Machines
Acceptance test for Drilling Machines
Acceptance test for Drilling Machines
Automated Inspection
 Flexible Inspection System
 A computer serves as a real time controller to integrate the functions of
several machines with the inspection station
 Machine Vision
 Machine vision can be defined as the acquisition of image data of an
object of interest, followed by processing and interpretation of data by a
computer program, for useful applications.