Data and Signals

Note

To be transmitted, data must be

transformed to electromagnetic signals.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Data can be analog or digital.

The term analog data refers to information that is
continuous;
digital data refers to information that has discrete
states.
Analog data take on continuous values.
Digital data take on discrete values.

3.3
 Analog and Digital Data
 Data can be analog or digital.
 Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
 Digital data have discrete states and take
discrete values.
 Analog and Digital Signals
• Signals can be analog or digital.
• Analog signals can have an infinite number of
values in a range.
• Digital signals can have only a limited
number of values.
Figure : Comparison of analog and digital signals
PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

In data communications, we commonly use

periodic analog signals and nonperiodic digital
signals.
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple
or composite.
 A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave,
cannot be decomposed into simpler signals.
 A composite periodic analog signal is composed of
multiple sine waves.
Figure : A sine wave
Figure: Two signals with the same phase and frequency, but different
amplitudes
Note

Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.
Figure : Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies
Table : Units of period and frequency
 Example :1

The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz. The period

of this sine wave can be determined as follows:
 Example :2

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in kilohertz?

Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we calculate the
frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10−3 kHz).
 Frequency
• Frequency is the rate of change with respect
to time.
• Change in a short span of time means high
frequency.
• Change over a long span of
time means low frequency.
Note

If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.
Note

Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time 0.
Figure : Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases
 Example :

A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its
phase in degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
Figure : Wavelength and period
Figure : The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave
Note

A complete sine wave in the time domain

can be represented by one single spike in
the frequency domain.
Figure : The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves
 Signals and Communication
• A single-frequency sine wave is not
useful in data communications
• We need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine
waves.
• According to Fourier analysis, any
composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
 Composite Signals and Periodicity

• If the composite signal is periodic, the

decomposition gives a series of signals
with discrete frequencies.
• If the composite signal is nonperiodic, the
decomposition gives a combination of
sine waves with continuous frequencies.
 Example :

Figure in next slide shows a periodic composite signal

with frequency f. This type of signal is not typical of
those found in data communications. We can consider
it to be three alarm systems, each with a different
frequency. The analysis of this signal can give us a
good understanding of how to decompose signals.
Figure : A composite periodic signal
Figure : Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains
 Example :

Figure shows a nonperiodic composite signal. It can

be the signal created by a microphone or a telephone
set when a word or two is pronounced. In this case,
the composite signal cannot be periodic, because that
implies that we are repeating the same word or words
with exactly the same tone.
Figure : The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal
 Bandwidth and Signal Frequency

• The bandwidth of a composite signal is

the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies contained in that
signal.
Figure : The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals
 Example :

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with

frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its
bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a
maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the
bandwidth. Then

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900
Hz (see Figure 3.13).
Figure : The bandwidth for Example
 Example :

A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency

is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw the spectrum if the
signal contains all frequencies of the same amplitude.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the
bandwidth. Then

The spectrum contains all integer frequencies. We show this by a

series of spikes (see Figure 3.14).
Figure : The bandwidth for Example :
 Example :6

A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200

kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak
amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an
amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the
signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest
at 240 kHz. Figure 3.15 shows the frequency domain
and the bandwidth.
Figure The bandwidth for Example 6
Transmission Media
Figure :Transmission medium and physical layer
 Overview
• Guided - wire
• Unguided - wireless
• Characteristics and quality determined by
medium and signal
• For guided, the medium is more important
• For unguided, the bandwidth produced by the
antenna is more important
• Key concerns are data rate and distance
 Design Factors
• Bandwidth
– Higher bandwidth gives higher data rate
• Transmission impairments
– Attenuation
• Interference
• Number of receivers
– In guided media
– More receivers (multi-point) introduce more
attenuation
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Guided Transmission Media
• Twisted Pair
• Coaxial cable
• Optical fiber
Twisted Pair
 Twisted Pair - Applications
• Most common medium
• Telephone network
– Between house and local exchange (subscriber
loop)
• Within buildings
– To private branch exchange (PBX)
• For local area networks (LAN)
– 10Mbps or 100Mbps
 Twisted Pair - Pros and Cons
• Cheap
• Easy to work with
• Low data rate
• Short range
 Twisted Pair - Transmission
Characteristics
• Analog
– Amplifiers every 5km to 6km
• Digital
– Use either analog or digital signals
– repeater every 2km or 3km
• Limited distance
• Limited bandwidth (1MHz)
• Limited data rate (100MHz)
• Susceptible to interference and noise
 Unshielded and Shielded TP
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
– Ordinary telephone wire
– Cheapest
– Easiest to install
– Suffers from external EM interference
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
– Metal braid or sheathing that reduces interference
– More expensive
– Harder to handle (thick, heavy)
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)
• Typically wrapped inside a plastic cover (for mechanical
protection)
• A sample UTP cable with 5 unshielded twisted pairs of wires

Insulator Metal
50
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP)
• STP cables are similar to UTP cables, except there is a
metal foil or braided-metal-mesh cover that encases each
pair of insulated wires

51
Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables
Figure . UTP connector
 UTP Categories
• Cat 3
– up to 16MHz
– Voice grade found in most offices
– Twist length of 7.5 cm to 10 cm
• Cat 4
– up to 20 MHz
• Cat 5
– up to 100MHz
– Commonly pre-installed in new office buildings
– Twist length 0.6 cm to 0.85 cm
 Near End Crosstalk
• Coupling of signal from one pair to another
• Coupling takes place when transmit signal
entering the link couples back to receiving pair
• i.e. near transmitted signal is picked up by
near receiving pair
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial Cables
• In general, coaxial cables, or coax, carry signals of higher freq
(100KHz–500MHz) than UTP cables
• Outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise
and as the second conductor that completes the circuit
 Coaxial Cable Applications
• Most versatile medium
• Television distribution
– Ariel to TV
– Cable TV
• Long distance telephone transmission
– Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously
– Being replaced by fiber optic
• Short distance computer systems links
• Local area networks
 Coaxial Cable - Transmission
Characteristics
• Analog
– Amplifiers every few km
– Closer if higher frequency
– Up to 500MHz
• Digital
– Repeater every 1km
– Closer for higher data rates
Optical Fiber
 Optical Fiber - Benefits
• Greater capacity
– Data rates of hundreds of Gbps
• Smaller size & weight
• Lower attenuation
• Electromagnetic isolation
• Greater repeater spacing
– 10s of km at least
 Optical Fiber - Applications
• Long-haul trunks
• Metropolitan trunks
• Rural exchange trunks
• Subscriber loops
• LANs
 Optical Fiber - Transmission
Characteristics
• Act as wave guide for 1014 to 1015 Hz
– Portions of infrared and visible spectrum
• Light Emitting Diode (LED)
– Cheaper
– Wider operating temp range
– Last longer
• Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
– More efficient
– Greater data rate
• Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Optical Fiber Transmission Modes
Figure . Modes
 Wireless Transmission
• Unguided media
• Transmission and reception via antenna
• Directional
– Focused beam
– Careful alignment required
• Omnidirectional
– Signal spreads in all directions
– Can be received by many antennae
 Frequencies
• 2GHz to 40GHz
– Microwave
– Highly directional
– Point to point
– Satellite
• 30MHz to 1GHz
– Omnidirectional
– Broadcast radio
• 3 x 1011 to 2 x 1014
– Infrared
– Local
 Terrestrial Microwave
• Parabolic dish
• Focused beam
• Line of sight
• Long haul telecommunications
• Higher frequencies give higher data rates
 Satellite Microwave
• Satellite is relay station
• Satellite receives on one frequency, amplifies or
repeats signal and transmits on another
frequency
• Requires geo-stationary orbit
– Height of 35,784km
• Television
• Long distance telephone
• Private business networks
 Broadcast Radio
• Omnidirectional
• FM radio
• UHF and VHF television
• Line of sight
• Suffers from multipath interference
– Reflections
 Infrared
• Modulate noncoherent infrared light
• Line of sight (or reflection)
• Blocked by walls
• e.g. TV remote control, IRD port