Antenna Research Centre Faculty of Electrical Engineering Universiti Teknologi MARA

Antenna Research Centre Faculty of Electrical Engineering Universiti Teknologi MARA
16-PIC Power
ROAA Controller
What is an ‘antenna’?
 An antenna is a device that is made to efficiently radiate and

receive radiated electromagnetic waves.
 An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of

conductors.
 Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into
space
 Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space.
 In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used

for transmission and reception.
M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 2

Transmitter
In transmit systems the RF signal is generated, amplified,

modulated and applied to the antenna

Receiver
In receive systems the antenna collects electromagnetic

waves that are “cutting” through the antenna and induce
alternating currents that are used by the receiver

Antenna Types
• Wire Antennas
• Aperture Antennas
• Microstrip Antennas
• Array Antennas
• Reflector Antennas
• Slotted Antennas
• Lens Antennas

Wire Antennas
 There are various shapes of wire antennas such as

a straight wire (dipole), loop, and helix which are
shown in Figure .

Aperture Antenna

Microstrip Antennas

Array Antennas

Reflector Antennas

Lens Antennas

Reciprocity
• An antenna ability to transfer energy form the atmosphere to
its receiver with the same efficiency with which it transfers
energy from the transmitter into the atmosphere
• Antenna characteristics are essentially the same regardless
of whether an antenna is sending or receiving
electromagnetic energy

ANTENNA PARAMETERS
A mathematical function
or a graphical
representation of the
radiation properties of
the antenna as a
function of space
coordinates.
RADIATION
PATTERN
Radiation properties include power
In most cases, the radiation
flux density, radiation intensity, field pattern is determined in far-field
strength, directivity phase or region and is represented as a
polarization. function of the directional
coordinates.

a hypothetical lossless antenna having equal radiation in all
Isotropic radiator
directions. (ideal case, not physically reliable, taken as reference)
having the property of radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves

more effectively in some directions than in others. (normally for
Directional antenna
antenna whose max. directivity is greater than that of a half-wave
dipole).
having an essentially non directional pattern in a given plane and

Omni-directional
antenna
a directional pattern in any orthogonal plan. It is a special type of
directional.

Dipole Horn
Microstrip
Helical

Principal Patterns
E-plane H-plane
• the plane containing the • the plane containing

electric-field vector and the magnetic –field
the direction of maximum vector and the
radiation. direction of maximum
radiation

For this example, the x-z plane (elevation plane; ¢ = 0) is the principal E-plane
and the x-y plane (azimuthal plane; e = n /2) is the principal H –plane. Other
coordinate orientations can be selected.
(it consists of only one major lobe, with maximum radiation)

Radiation Pattern Lobes
Major lobe: the radiation lobe containing the direction of maximum

radiation.
Minor lobe is any lobe except a major lobe.
Side lobe is a radiation lobe in any direction other than the intended lobe.
Back lobe refers to a minor lobe in a direction opposite to the major lobe.
HPBW: In a plane containing the direction of maximum beam, the angle

radiation
between the two directions in which the radiation intensity is one-half the intensity
value of the beam.
FNBW
FNBW: The angular separation between the first nulls of the pattern.
major lobe
The power pattern of the antenna is a measure of the radiation intensity. minor lobes side lobe
HPBW back lobe
θ
π π/2 π/2 π

20
Field Regions (Imaginary boundary sphere region)
D : largest dimension
of the antenna

Field Regions
1. Reactive near-field region - that portion of the near-field region immediately surrounding the
antenna wherein the reactive field predominates.
2. Radiating near field region (Fresnel) - that region of the field of an antenna between the
reactive near-field and the far-field region wherein radiation fields predominates and the
angular field distribution is dependent upon the distance from the antenna.
3. Far-field region (Fraunhofer) - where the angular field distribution is essentially independent
of the distance from the antenna.

In the reactive near-field region the amplitude pattern of the antenna is more spread out and nearly uniform
with slight variations .
In the radiating near-field region (Fresnel), the pattern begins to smooth and form lobes.
In the far-field region (Fraunhofer), the pattern is well formed consisting of few minor lobes and one or more
major lobes.
Antenna Radiation Patterns
Figure 1. a) Generic Dipole Elevation Pattern b) Generic Dipole Azimuth

Pattern c) 3-D Radiation Pattern.

Cont….
BASIC ANTENNA THEORY
Various parts of a radiationpattern are referred to as lobes, which may be

subclassified into major or main, minor, side, an dback lobes.

Radian and Steradian
Radian – measure of plain angle:

One radian is defined as the plane angle with its vertex at the center of a
circle of radius r that is subtended by arc whose length is r.
r
dA= r2sin d d (m2)
1 rad
Perimeter,

Radian and Steradian
Steradian – measure of solid angle:

One steradian is defined as the solid angle with its vertex at the center of a
sphere of radius r that is subtended by a spherical surface area equal to
that of a square with each side of length r.

Cont….
Steradian (dΩ) – measure of solid angle of the sphere

Power Density

Power density (or volume power density or volume specific power) is the
amount of power (time rate of energy transfer) per unit volume.

Radiated Power

RADIATION INTENSITY (in a given direction)
U = r2Wrad = A0 sin θ

For anisotropic source U will be independent of the angles θ and
φ, as was the case for Wrad. Thus (2-13) can be written as
or the radiation intensity of an isotropic source as

Directivity

Gain

Gain
G is measured,
D is calculated

Gain

Antenna Efficiency

Half-power Beamwidth

The maximum value of the relative power pattern is unity (1) and known as a normalized pattern.
Normalizing this power with respect to its maximum value yields a normalized power pattern as a
function of angle which is a dimensionless number with maximum value of unity (1).
Reflection Coefficient
• The reflection coefficient is a vector quantity that

represents the ratio of reflected voltage to incident
voltage or reflected current to incident current.
Mathematically :
Er I r
 
Ei I i
• Reflected power never exceed the incident power since
reflected power is a portion of incident wave that was not
absorbed by the load: 0   1
where   1 when E r  Ei
  0 when E r  0

Standing Wave
• Matched line – occur when all the incident power is
absorbed by the load and
ZO  Z L
• Mismatched line – occur when some of the incident
power is absorbed by the load, and some returned
(reflected) to the source.
ZO  Z L

Standing Wave .
These are stationary waves pattern produced on the TL as the

incident and reflected waves pass each other. The two
traveling waves set up an interference pattern.
- Distance between minima is half wavelength.

- Distance between maxima is also half wavelength.
- Distance between minima and maxima is
quarter wavelength.

• Standing-wave ratio (SWR or VSWR) is defined as the
ratio of the maximum voltage to the minimum voltage or
the maximum current to the minimum current of a
standing wave on a transmission line.
• Also called VSWR (Voltage Standing-Wave Ratio)
• Mathematically, SWR is
Vmax
SWR 
Vmin
V max - occur when the incident and reflected waves are in phase
Vmin - occur when the incident and reflected waves are 1800 out of
phase.
Therefore :
Vmax Ei  E r
SWR  
Vmin Ei  E r

When the load is purely resistive, SWR can be expressed
as a ratio of the characteristic impedance to the load
impedancce or vice versa (whichever gives an SWR greater
than 1)
Therefore :
Z0 ZL
SWR  or
ZL Z0

SWR = ∞ when the incident and reflected waves are
equal in amplitude (a total mismatch),. This is the
worst-case condition.
SWR = 1 when there is no reflected wave (Er = 0), This
condition occurs when Zo = ZL and is the ideal
situation
1  SWR  
where SWR  1 when E r  0i
SWR   when E r  Ei

• The standing wave ratio can also be written in terms of  :
Ei  E r
• Substituting into equation…
Ei  Ei
SWR 
Ei  Ei
Ei 1    1   
SWR  
Ei 1    1   
• Cross multiplying gives SWR  1

SWR  1

Example
For a sphere of radius r, find the solid angle ΩA (in square radians or
steradians) of a spherical cap on the surface of the sphere over the
north-pole region defined by spherical angles of 0 ≤ θ ≤ 30◦, 0 ≤ φ ≤
180◦. Do this exactly.

Example
As an illustration, find the maximum directivity of the antenna whose

radiation intensity is U = r2Wrad = A0 sin θ. Write an expression for the
directivity as a function of the directional angles θ and φ.

NANRI

Antenna Research Centre Faculty of Electrical Engineering Universiti Teknologi MARA

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Antenna Research Centre Faculty of Electrical Engineering Universiti Teknologi MARA

 An antenna is a device that is made to efficiently radiate and

 An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of

 In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 2

In transmit systems the RF signal is generated, amplified,

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 3

In receive systems the antenna collects electromagnetic

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 4

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 5

 There are various shapes of wire antennas such as

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 6

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 7

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 8

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 9

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 10

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 11

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 12

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 13

having the property of radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves

having an essentially non directional pattern in a given plane and

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 14

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 15

• the plane containing the • the plane containing

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 16

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 17

Major lobe: the radiation lobe containing the direction of maximum

Minor lobe is any lobe except a major lobe.

HPBW: In a plane containing the direction of maximum beam, the angle

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 18

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 21

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 22

Figure 1. a) Generic Dipole Elevation Pattern b) Generic Dipole Azimuth

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 24

BASIC ANTENNA THEORY

Various parts of a radiationpattern are referred to as lobes, which may be

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 25

Radian – measure of plain angle:

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 28

Steradian – measure of solid angle:

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 31

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 32

BASIC ANTENNA THEORY

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 34

BASIC ANTENNA THEORY

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 35

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 39

or the radiation intensity of an isotropic source as

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 40

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 43

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 44

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 45

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 46

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 47

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 48

• The reflection coefficient is a vector quantity that

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 52

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 53

These are stationary waves pattern produced on the TL as the

- Distance between minima is half wavelength.

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 54

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 56

M.T.ALI - Antenna Research Centre (ARC), UITM 57