 Primary sources

◦ Primary data refer to information obtained firsthand

by the researcher on the variables of interest for the
specific purposes of the study
 Secondary sources
◦ Secondary data refer to information gathered from
sources already existing
 Individuals
 Focus groups
◦ Aimed at obtaining respondents’ impressions,
interpretations, and opinions.
◦ Provides only qualitative and not quantitative
information
◦ Can not be considered to be truly representative
◦ Focus groups are used for (1) exploratory studies,
(2) making generalizations based on the
information gathered by them, and (3)
conducting sample surveys
◦ Videoconferencing
 Panels
◦ Whereas focus groups meet for a one-time group
session, panels meet more than once.
◦ Static or dynamic
◦ Typically used when several aspects of a product
are to be studied from time to time
 Unobtrusive Measures
◦ Originate from a primary source that does not
involve people
 Advantage of seeking secondary data sources
is savings in time and costs of acquiring
information.
 Drawbacks: obsolete, not meeting the specific
needs of a particular situation or setting
 Interviews
 Questionnaires
 Observation
 Unobtrusive Methods
 Unstructured interviews
◦ Interviewer does not enter the interview setting with
a planned sequences of questions to be asked of
the respondent
◦ The objective: to bring some preliminary issues to
the surface so that the researcher can determine
what variables need further in-depth investigation
 Structured interviews
◦ Those conducted when it is known at the outset
what information is needed.
◦ The interviewer has a list of predetermined
questions to be asked of the respondents
 Some tips
◦ Biases could be introduced by:
 Interviewer
 Interviewees
 Situational
◦ Biases can be minimized:
 Establishing credibility and rapport, and motivating
individuals to respond
 Questioning techniques: funneling, unbiased
questions, clarifying issues, helping the respondents
to think through issues, taking notes
 Advantages:
◦ Adapt the questions as necessary, clarify doubts,
and ensure that the responses are properly
understood
◦ Pick up nonverbal cues from the respondent
◦ Any discomfort, stress, or problems that the
respondent experiences can be detected
 Disadvantages:
◦ Geographical limitations
◦ Vast resources needed
◦ High costs
◦ Respondents might feel uneasy about the
anonymity of their responses
 Advantages:
◦ A number of differently different people can be
reached in a relatively short period of time
◦ It would eliminate any discomfort on respondents
 Disadvantages:
◦ Respondents could unilaterally terminate the
interview without warning or explanation, by hanging
up the phone.
◦ Researcher will not be able to read the nonverbal
communication
 Advantages:
◦ Accuracy of data collection is enhanced
◦ Responses can be obtained from people all over the
world
◦ Faster and easier analysis of data, as automatic
tabulation of result is possible
◦ More efficient in term of cost and time
 Disadvantages:
◦ Initial heavy investment in equipment and software
 A pre-formulated written set of questions to
which respondents record their answers,
usually within rather closely defined
alternatives
 Efficient data collection mechanism when the
researcher knows exactly what is required
and how to measure the variable if interest.
 Personally administered questionnaires
◦ Advantages:
 Researcher can collect all the completed responses
within a short period of time
 Clarify any doubts
 Less expensive and consumes less time than
interviewing
◦ Disadvantages
 Organizations are often unable or inclined to allow work
hours to be spent on data collection
 Mail questionnaires
◦ Advantages:
 Wide geographical area can be covered

◦ Disadvantages:
 Low response rate
 Guidelines for questionnaires design
◦ Principles of wording
 Content and the purpose of the questions: must be
appropriate for tapping the variable
 Language and wording of the questionnaires: must be
meaningful to the respondents
 Type and form of questions: should minimize
respondents’ bias
 Sequencing of questions: should facilitate smooth
progress of the responses
 Guidelines for questionnaires design (cont’d)
◦ Classification data or personal information: should
be gathered with due regard to the sensitivity of the
respondents’ feeling and with respects for privacy
◦ General appearances of questionnaire:
 Good introduction
 Logic and neat
 Sufficient instructions
 Allow completion with least effort
 Postpone sensitive data to the end
 Open-ended questions at the end
 Ending note
 Pretesting of Structured Questions
◦ To ensure that the questions are understood by the
respondents
◦ There are no problems with the wording or
measurement
 Observational surveys
◦ Nonparticipant and participant observer
◦ Structured and unstructured