GLASS

History
Definition
Raw Materials
Manufacturing Methods
The History of Glass
Manmade vessels were produced
in Mesopotamia for the first time
during the early Bronze Age.
Babylonian glassmakers developed new
techniques and discovered that molten glass
can be blown into shapes which enabled glass
vessels to be produced more easily.

3500 BC 650BC 50BC

1600BC 250BC

The first evidence of
manmade glass objects
was found in Egypt and
Eastern Mesopotamia,
modern-day Syria.
First glassmaking manual was The Phoenicians use
written and found on the glass to create art.
tablets from the library of the
Assyrian King Assurbanipal.
 French glassmakers first
Broad sheet glass was first produce crown glass in Rouen,
produced in Sussex, England. France.

100AD 1271 1590

1226
There was a rapid expansion
of glassmaking during the
Roman Empire as glass
become more commonly
available and spread
throughout Europe.
1330
During the Middle Ages
Venice become a major
center for glass production in
Western Europe.
Glass telescope and
microscope lenses are
developed for the first
time in Netherlands.
 Polished plate glass was first
produced in France. The glass
Blown plate glass was first was cast and then hand
manufactured in London. polished.

1608 1678 1773

1620 1688

America’s first glass house
was founded by settlers in
Jamestown, Virginia.
Crown glass was first The English began polished plate
produced in London. Due to glass production at Ravenshead.
its superior quality it By 1800 a steam engine was used
dominated manufacturing to carry out the grinding and
until the 19th century. polishing process.

Improved cylinder sheet production
was introduced by Robert Lucas
Chance and used extensively until
the early 20th century.
James Hartley introduces
rolled plate glass. This type of
glass was commonly used in
the design of extensive glass
roofs such as within railway
stations.

1800s 1843 1875

1834 1847

Synthetic chemicals become
available for the first time as
the industrial revolution
brings a new era in glass
manufacturing.
English inventor Henry
Bessemer creates an early
form of float glass. This
proved to be an expensive
method and not widely
used.
The University of Jena becomes a
major glass science and
engineering Centre as glass
chemistry class.
 Pilkington enhanced
French artist and chemist Edouard the polished plate
Benedictus invented laminated process to incorporate
glass as the result of a laboratory a double grinding
accident. process.

1888 1913 1950s

1903 1938
Flat drawn sheet Glass science becomes a major
Machine rolled glass was
techniques where first research discipline as the Ford
introduced which allowed
developed in Belgium and Motor Co established a glass
patterns to be created.
introduced to the UK in research Centre.
1919.
 Michael Owens is induced into the National
Inventors Hall of Fame. In 1903 Owens
The first fluoride glass is discovered developed an automated glass bottle making
by Marcel and Michel Poulain and machine which is regarded as one of the most
Jacques Lucas in Rennes, France. importance developments in the history of
glassmaking.

1959 2012

1984 2007

Sir Alastair Pilkington A new type of ultra-thin glass has been

introduces float glass to the developed that has the ability to warp
UK, a revolutionary new round devices and as thin as a sheet of
process of flat glass paper.
manufacture.
 Definition Raw materials
Glass is a non-crystalline 1. Acidic oxides
amorphous solid that is 2. Basic oxides
often transparent and
3. Cullet
has widespread
practical, technological, 4. Colouring matter
and decorative usage.
1. ACIDIC OXIDES
Sand (SiO2)
Borax (Na2B4O7.10H2O)
Phosphorus(V) Oxide, P2O5
Arsenious oxide, As2O3
2. BASIC OXIDES
Limestone(CaCO3)
Feldspar : Na2O. A12O3.
6SiO2(soda feldspar) or
K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2 (Potash
feldspar)
Lead oxide
3. CULLET
It is the crushed glass
from imperfect or defective
articles or their trimmings. It
makes the melting easy and also
utilization of waste.
4. COLOURING MATTER
Red: CdO (1.4%), Se (1 %)
Ruby red: (i) Colloidal gold
or ruby gold, (ii) Cu20
Light yellow: Cerium oxide
(2%), Titanium oxide (TiO2)
Deep blue: Cobalt oxide
(CoO) (0.1%)
Greenish blue: Copper (II)
oxide, CuO
Emerald
green: Cr2O3 (0.15%), CoO
(0.001%)
Amber: FeS (0.3%)
Black: MnO2 + Fe2O3
Yellow: CdS
Manufacturing Methods
Z

Schematic of typical glass manufacturing process

The most common type of glass forming
process can be categorized as:
 Flat glass
Glass fibers
Glass tubing
Toughened or tempered glass
Laminated glass
Flat glass

Float glass process of forming flat glass

Rolling of flat glass
Glass fibers

Glass fiber processing: (a) continuous glass filament process;

(b) glass wool process.
Glass tubing

Continuous glass tubing process

Toughened or tempered glass
Glass can fracture due to stress concentration. To avoid the
fracture of glass, local high compressive stresses are
induced near the surfaces. This is done by thermal
toughening of glass. Initially, the glass plate is heated to
650ºC after which the outer surface is rapidly cooled by air
blasts. Due to which thin compressive layer is created at the
outer surface and the center of the glass becomes the
region of tensile stresses. This causes the self-equilibrium. The
glasses used in glazed door and making tabletops are
made by this process and is termed as toughened or safety
glass.
Laminated glass
It is made by bonding of two or more pieces of safety glass.
The adhesive mostly used for bonding is polyvinyl butyral
(PVB). Depending upon the number of safety glass layers,
the strength of the glass may be increased or decreased.
Nowadays, laminated glass is produced by bonding
number of annealed glass layers with plastic interlayers. This
type of glass is used in automobile windshields where
strength is one of the key issues.
Classifications of Commercial
Glasses
1.FUSED SILICA(VITREOUS SILICA )
 made by the high- temperature pyrolysis of
silicon tetrachloride or by fusion of quartz or
pure sand.
 quartz glass characterized by low expansion and
a high softening point which impart high
thermal resistance and permit it to be used
beyond the temperature ranges of other glasses.
 extraordinary transparent to ultra violet
radiation.
2.SODA-LIME GLASS
constitutes 95% of all glass manufactured. It is used for containers of all kinds,
flat glass, automobile and other windows, tumblers, and tableware.
3.LEAD GLASS
Obtained by substituting lead oxide for calcium oxide in the glass melt.
These glasses are of very great importance in optical work because of their high
index of refraction and dispersion.
Large quantities are used also for the construction of electric light bulbs and neon-
sign tubing because of the high electrical resistance of this glass.
It is also suitable for shielding from nuclear radiation.

4.BOROSILICATE GLASS
has a low expansion coefficient, superior resistance to shock, excellent chemical
stability, and high electrical resistance.
Uses of borosilicate glasses, are high tension insulators and washers, pipelines and
telescope lenses.
5.GLASS FIBERS
 produced from special glass compositions that are resistant to weather conditions.
 low in silica, about 55%, and low in alkali
 can be formed into yarn much like wool or cotton, and woven into fabric which is
sometimes used for draperies.
 can be tailored for specific applications such as type E (electrical), type C (chemical),
and type T(thermal).

6.SPECIAL GLASSES
The most significant factor for the various types of special glasses is their application
and this determines the requirements on certain properties of the glass.
Used in many different fields, such as chemistry, pharmacy, electro-technology,
electronics, apparatus and instrument construction, optics, illuminations
engineering, househod appliances and in other technical applications.
MANUFACTURE OF SPECIAL
GLASSES
1. FIBER GLASS

POTASH,LIME,SAND

1550°C

PLATINUM ALLOY
2. COLORED AND COATED GLASSES
3. FUSED SILICA GLASS
Fused silica is produced by fusing (melting) high-purity silica sand,
which consists of quartz crystals. There are four basic types of
commercial silica glass:
Type I -created by the electric melting of natural quartz in a vacuum,
or in an inert gas at low pressure.
Type II -result of quartz crystal powder by flame fusion.
Type III- is a synthetic variety; it is produced by the hydrolyzation of
SiCl4when sprayed into an OH flame.
Type IV -a synthetic produced from SiCl4 in a water vapor-free
plasma flame.
 4.SAFETY GLASSES
Laminated safety glass

This glass is particularly suitable where it

is important to ensure the resistance of
the whole sheet after breakage, such as,
shop-fronts, balconies, stair-railings, roof
glazing
4.SAFETY GLASSES
Tempered or strengthened glass
CERAMICS
INDUSTRY
 HISTORY OF CERAMICS
26,000 B.C.
Early man discovered that clay,
consisting of mammoth fat and
bone mixed with bone ash and
local loess, can be molded and
dried in the sun to form a
brittle, heat resistant material.
Thus, it was the beginning of
ceramic art.
6,000 B.C.
Ceramic firing is first used in
Ancient Greece. The Greek
pottery Pjtboj is developed
and used for storage, burial
and art.
 HISTORY OF CERAMICS
4,000 B.C.
Glass is discovered in ancient
Egypt. This primitive glass
consisted of a silicate glaze
over a sintered quartz body
and was primarily used for
jewelry. The used of ceramic
coating continues today in
many things from bathtubs to
tailpipes of jet aircraft.
50 B.C.-50 A.D.
Optical glass (lenses and
mirrors) window glass and
glass blowing production
begins in Rome and spreads
around the world with the
Roman Empire.
 HISTORY OF CERAMICS
600 A.D.
Porcelain, the first ceramic
composite, is created by the
Chinese. This durable material
is made by firing clay along
with feldspar and quartz.
Porcelain is used in everything
from electrical insulators, to
dinnerware
1870’s
Refractory materials (able to
withstand extremely high
temperatures) are introduced
during the industrial
revolution. Materials made
from lime and MgO are used
for everything from bricks for
buildings to lining the inside
of steel making furnaces.
 HISTORY OF CERAMICS
1877
The first example of high-tech
materials research is directed
by inventor Thomas Edison.
Edison tests a plethora of
ceramics for resistivity, to be
used in his newly discovered
carbon microphone.
1889
The American Ceramic
Society was founded by Elmer
E. Gorton, Samuel Geijsbeek
and Colonel Edward Orton Jr..
The primary goal of this
society continues to be
unlocking the mysteries of
high-tech ceramics.
 HISTORY OF CERAMICS

1960
With the discovery of the laser
and the observation that its
light will travel through glass,
a new field called fiber optics
opens.
1965
The development of
photovoltaic cells which
convert light into electricity
opens a new way to access
solar energy
 HISTORY OF CERAMICS

1987 1992
Scientists discover Certain ceramics known as
superconducting ceramic “smart” materials are widely
oxide with a critical publicized. These materials
temperature of 92K, can sense and react to variable
surpassing the old metallic surface conditions, much like
superconductor's critical a living organism.
temperature by over 60K.
 DEFINITION
 Ceramics are defined as a class of inorganic, nonmetallic solids
that are subjected to high temperature in manufacture and/or use.
The most common ceramics are composed of oxides, carbides,
and nitrides.
 Silicides, borides, phosphides, tellurides, and selenides are also
used to produce ceramics.
 Ceramic processing generally involves high temperatures, and the
resulting materials are heat resistant or refractory.
Classification of Ceramics based on Application
TRADITIONAL ADVANCED CERAMICS
CERAMICS

ELECTROCERAMICS ADVANCED STRUCTURAL

CERAMICS

WHITEWARES ELECTRONIC SUSTRATE, NUCLEAR CERAMICS

PACKAGE CERAMICS

STRUCTURAL CLAY
CAPACITOR DIELECTRIC BIOCERAMICS
PRODUCTS
PIEZOELECTRIC CERAMICS

BRICKS AND TRIBOLOGICAL (WEAR

TILES MAGNETIC CERAMICS RESISTANT) CERAMICS

ABRASIVES AUTOMOTIVE
OPTICAL CERAMICS
CERAMICS

REFRACTORIES
CONDUCTIVE CERAMICS

CEMENT
 PRINCIPLE RAW MATERIALS
CLAYS
 Are plastic and moldable when sufficiently finely pulverized and wet, rigid
when dry, and vitreous when fired at a suitably high temperature.
 Are used in the ceramics industry because of its contribution to the moulding
and drying properties of the wares being produced.
 Produces a light color during firing and enhances the mechanical
characteristics in the fired tiles.
FELDSPARS
 Are high temperature alkaline fluxes and the fluxes are melt at an early stage in
the firing process, forming a glassy matrix that bonds the other components of
the system together.
 Are important ingredients in clay making and ceramic glazes.
 PRINCIPLE RAW MATERIALS
 In both application, their primary function is to supply fluxes to the
formulations, but they also provide additional alumina and silica.
 Three common types are potash, soda and lime.
Silica
 One of the most abundant oxide materials in the earth’s crust.
 It can exist in an amorphous form or in a variety of crystalline forms.
 Facilitate escape of gases during drying and firing.
 Reduces the drying shrinkage and increases the whiteness of the fired body.
 FLUXING AGENTS
Borax Iron Oxides
Boric Acid Antimony Oxides
Soda Ash Lead Oxides
Sodium Nitrate Lithium Minerals
Pearl Ash Barium Minerals
Calcined Bones
Apatite
Flourspar
Cryolite
SPECIAL REFRACTORY INGREDIENTS
Alumina Dolomite
Olivine Thoria
Chromite
Magnesite
Lime
Zirconia
Titania
Hydrous Magnesium Silicates
Aluminum Silicates
 TRADITIONAL CERAMICS
WHITEWARES
Is a generic term for ceramic products which are usually white and
has fine texture.
Made from components of clay, silica, and feldspar for which the
composition is controlled.
Examples of these are Earthenware, Chinaware, Porcelein, Stoneware
and Sanitary ware.
STRUCTURAL CLAY PRODUCTS
Made of natural clay, which contains all three basic components.
Low cost but very durable products such as building brick, sewer
pipe, and drain tile are very frequently manufactured from the
cheapest of common clays with or without glazing.
 TRADITIONAL CERAMICS
ABRASIVES
It is a material, often a mineral, that is used to shape or finish a
workpiece through rubbing which leads to part of the workpiece being
worn away.
REFRACTORIES
Termed as acid, basic, and neutral, and also superrefractories
embrace those materials used to withstand the effect of thermal,
chemical and physical effects met in a furnace procedure.
Examples of these are kiln linings, gas fire radiants, steel and glass
making crucibles
 ADVANCED CERAMICS
Advanced ceramic materials have been developed over the
past half century .
Applied as thermal barrier coatings to protect metal
structures, wearing surfaces, or as integral components by
themselves.
Engine applications are very common for this class of
material which includes silicon nitride (Si3N4), silicon carbide
(SiC), Zirconia (ZrO2) and Alumina (Al2O3) .
Heat resistance and other desirable properties have lead to
the development of methods to toughen the material by
reinforcement with fibers and whiskers opening up more
applications for ceramics.
CLASSIFICATION OF
CERAMIC MATERIALS
TWO MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS

APPLICATION BASE

COMPOSITION
BASE
APPLICATION BASE
 APPLICATION BASE
TRADITIONAL CERAMICS ADVANCED CERAMICS
Ceramic materials that are derived An inorganic, non metallic
from common, naturally occurring raw (ceramic), basically crystalline
materials such as clay minerals and material of rigorously
quartz sand. Through industrial controlled composition and
processes that have been practiced in manufactured with detailed
some form for centuries, these regulation from highly refined
materials are made into such familiar and/or characterized raw
products as china tableware, clay brick materials giving precisely
and tile, industrial abrasives and specified attributes.
refractory linings, and Portland
cement.
 TRADITIONAL CERAMICS PROCESSING
A. Preparation of Raw Materials
1. Crushing
Types of Equipment Used
a) Jaw Crushers
b) Gyratory Crushers
c) Roll Crushers
d) Hammer Mills
CRUSHING
CRUSHING
 TRADITIONAL CERAMICS PROCESSING
2. Grinding
Types of Equipment Used
a) Ball mill
b) Roller mill
c) Impact grinding
GRINDING

Roller Mill
GRINDING
 TRADITIONAL CERAMICS PROCESSING
B. Shaping Processes
The shaping processes can be divided according to the consistency of
the mixture:
1. slip casting, in which the mixture is a slurry with 25% to 40% water;
2. plastic-forming methods that shape the clay in a plastic condition at
15% to 25% water;
3. semi-dry pressing, in which the clay is moist (10% to 15% water) but
has low plasticity; and
4. dry pressing, in which the clay is basically dry, containing less than
5% water. Dry clay has no plasticity.
1. Slip Casting- A suspension of ceramic powders in water, called a slip,
is poured into a porous plaster of paris mold so that water from the
mix is absorbed into the plaster to form a firm layer of clay at the
mold surface.
The slip composition is 25% to 40% water.
Two principal variations:
a. Drain casting - the mold is inverted to drain excess slip after a
semisolid layer has been formed, thus producing a hollow
product.
b. Solid casting - to produce solid products, adequate time is
allowed for entire body to become firm.
Used for large parts, complex shapes; low equipment cost.
 Low production rate, limited dimensional accuracy.
 Drain Casting

(1) Slip is poured into the mold cavity

(2) Water is absorbed into plaster mold to form a firm layer;
(3) Excess slip is poured out; and
(4) Part is removed from mold and trimmed.
2. Plastic Forming- also called soft, wet forming, can be carried out by
various methods, such as extrusion, injection molding, or molding and
jiggering.

3. Semi-dry pressing

(1) Depositing moist powder into die cavity,

(2) Pressing, and
(3) Opening the die sections and ejection.
4. Dry Pressing
Process sequence is similar to semi-dry pressing, the main distinction
is that the water content of the starting mix is typically below 5%.
Dies must be made of hardened tool steel or cemented carbide to
reduce wear since dry clay is very abrasive.
No drying shrinkage occurs, so drying time is eliminated and good
dimensional accuracy is achieved in the final product.
Typical products: bathroom tile, electrical insulators, refractory brick,
and other simple geometries.
 TRADITIONAL CERAMICS PROCESSING
C. Drying - The formed materials hold water and binder in its mix that
can cause shrinkage, warping or distortion of the product. Generally
convection drying is the most commonly used method in which
heated air is circulated around the ceramic piece that alleviates the
risk of such imperfections in the final product.
D. Firing - Also known as sintering or densification, the ceramics pass
through a controlled heat process where the oxides are
consolidated into a dense, cohesive body made up of uniform grain.
E. Glazing - Referring back to traditional ceramics, this step is added to
the process prior to firing. Typically, the glaze consists of oxides that
give the product the desired finish look.
 TRADITIONAL CERAMICS APPLICATIONS
Earthenware, Stoneware, China, Porcelain, are all distinguished
by their firing temperature and glass forming temperature

Tiles are made from similar composition material

Structural bricks are made from cheaper mixtures -often a single
clay (“Fletton Brick”)
Refractory bricks have special compositions to withstand high
temperatures or corrosive environments
 ADVANCE CERAMICS PROCESSING
A. Preparation of Raw Materials
1.Freeze Drying
2.Precipitation from solution

B. Shaping
1. Hot pressing
2. Isostatic pressing
3. Doctor-blade process
4. Injection molding
 ADVANCE CERAMICS PROCESSING
C. Sintering
1. To bond individual grains into a solid mass
2. To increase density
3. To reduce or eliminate porosity

D. Finishing
1. To increase dimensional accuracy
2. To improve surface finish
3. To make minor changes in part geometry
ADVANCE CERAMICS APPLICATIONS
COMPOSITION BASE
 COMPOSITION BASE
OXIDES NON OXIDES SILICATE
single-phase or multiphase, include carbides, nitrides, are materials composed
are commonly understood borides, silicides and others. generally of silicon and
to be ceramics with a must undergo high oxygen.
microstructure consisting temperature processing in
essentially of simple oxides. reducing or inert
They can be desigined for atmosphere to prevent
structural or functional oxidation.
applications.
 OXIDE CERAMICS APPLICATION
Oxide Ceramics Application
Alumina Ceramics wear parts , electronic circuit substrates, filters and
membranes, armouring and bioceramic implants.
BeO as a nuclear ceramic as well as for high-temperature
crucibles, insulating parts and chip carriers
CaO for refractory bricks, compounds and fibres
CeO2
(for ion conductors, crucibles and oxygen sensors), MgO
(for melting crucibles, insulators and refractory bricks

TiO2
(for highfrequency capacitors and photocatalytic devices

MgO for melting crucibles, insulators and refractory bricks

UO2 nuclear ceramic
Y2O3 for crucibles
ZnO for varistors in voltage surge protectors
 NON OXIDE CERAMICS
A. Silicon Nitride- The atomic bonding of Si3N4 is approx. 70 % covalent
(building blocks: SiN4 tetrahedra).
- has two polymorphs, α (low-temperature) and β (high-temperature),
both of which are hexagonal. α-Si3N4 is harder. The equilibrium α- β-
transition is probably at 1400 °C, but in practice often shifted to much
higher temperatures.
B. SiAlON- Al3+ is substituted on some of the Si4+ sites and O2- on some of
the N3- sites in the Si3N4 crystal structures.
-In α-sialons, more Si is substituted by Al than N by O, so that charge-
compensating cations are required to give charge balance.
-In β-sialons, the same numbers of Al and O are substituted into the
Si and N sites ( no additional cations necessary to give charge
balance)
-General chemical formula: Si6-zAlzOzN8-z (where 0 < z < 4.2)
 SILICATE CERAMICS
A. Technical Porcelain
- generally consists of silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3)
- The natural ingredients of these components are quartz,
feldspar, soapstone and clay (kaolin)
1. Alumina Porcelain
2. Silica Porcelain
 SILICATE CERAMICS
B. Magnesium Silicates
- consist of silica (SiO2), magnesia (MgO) and some
alumina (Al2O3)
- The natural ingredients of Magnesium Silicates are
soapstone, clay, corundum, mullite.
1. Steatite
2. Cordierite
 SILICATE CERAMICS
C. Mullite Ceramics
- Mullite Ceramics consist of mullite (3Al2O3*2SiO2),
alumina (Al2O3) and glass (SiO2)
- Sintered Mullite Ceramics have porosity up to 10%,
which may be considerably reduced by increasing the
content of glass phase above 10%
SILICATE CERAMICS CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATION
SILICATE CERAMICS CHARACTERISITCS APPLICATION
High mechanical strength, excellent
electrical engineering as a good
Technical Porcelain dielectric properties, high chemical
insulator
resistance
used in heat engineering and in
electrical engineering for
High mechanical strength, good
manufacturing sockets, control
Steatite dielectric properties, very low loss
housings, insulating beads, low-
factor
voltage power fuses and base
Magnesium plates
Silicates used mostly in heat engineering for
Low coefficient of thermal manufacturing supports of heating
expansion, high thermal shock elements, parts of water heaters,
Cordierite
resistance, good mechanical pipes of heating element, gas
strength. heater inserts, spark protectors and
catalyst carriers in automobiles
SILICATE CERAMICS CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATION
SILICATE CERAMICS CHARACTERISITCS
High strength, high thermal shock
Mullite Ceramics resistance, relatively low thermal
expansion, good creep resistance
APPLICATION
used for manufacturing high
temperature parts, kiln furniture, slide
gates, ladles for molten metal,
protection tubes for thermocouples,
glass industry refractories