CELLULAR

REPRODUCTION AND
GENETICS
 GENETICS

Is the study of heredity and variation. It aims to

understand how traits can be passed on to the next
generation and how variation arises.
Every living thing undergoes
reproduction. The nutrients
taken by an individual will
provide for energy for
metabolic processes, for
growth and development as
well as reproduction. The
cellular level of reproduction,
in the form of cell division,
provides for the backdrop for
the organismal level of
reproduction.
All living things contain
what we call the genetic THE CHROMOSOMES
material that serves as the
set of instructions that
direct the activities and
function of the cells. These
genetic materials, also
known as
dioxyribonucleicacid or
DNA, are passed on from
one generation to the next
to ensure the continuity of
life. In eukaryotic cells, the
DNA are bound with
proteins and are organized
as beads on strings to form
chromosomes.
The number of
chromosomes in a cell is
characteristic of the
species to which it
belongs. For example,
humans have 46
chromosomes while rice
have 12. table 1
summarizes the
chromosome numbers
of some common
organisms.
 The cell cycle
The chromosomes of a cell
change form as the cell
transitions from one stage to
another in a typical cell cycle.
The cell cycle maybe divided
into two stages: the interphase
where the chromosomes are
long and extended and are
also referred to as chromatin,
and the cell division phase
where the chromosomes
become condensed of
thickened.
The interphase refers to the period that
follows one cell division and precedes
another. During this stage, the cell does
not divide; it merely grows. The
chromosomes doubles or replicates itself
because the DNA molecule contained in
the chromosome produces an exact
copy of itself.
The interphase is divided into three sub-
stages. The stage from the formation of a
new cell until it begins to replicate its DNA
is called the first gap period or G1, during
which time the cell grows initially. This
stage is characterized by protein &
ribonucleic acid (RNA) synthesis.
The middle stage of interphase, called the synthesis
stage or S, is the period of DNA synthesis or replication.
The chromosomes are duplicated in preparation for the
next cell division. The second gap period or G2, falls
between the S period and the next cell division or M
(mitosis/meiosis)phase. G2 represents a period of rapid
cell growth to prepare for cell division.
During interphase, the nucleus is clearly visible as a distinct
membrane bound organelle. In stained cells, this membrane
can be clearly seen under the light microscope. One or
more nucleoli are visible inside the nucleus. On the other
hand, the chromosomes cannot be clearly seen. They
appear as an irregular mass that is grainy in appearance
because the DNA they contain are stretch out thinly in the
nucleus. This facilitates the replication of DNA during the S
phase.
 The cell Division

Alternating with the interphase is the cell division phase. In

eukaryotic cells, there are two types of cell division: mitosis and
meiosis.

Mitosis
This type of cell division produces two identical cells with the
same number of chromosomes. Mitosis is divided into four
stages.
Prophase
The nuclear membrane and nucleoli ma still be present. The
chromosomes are thicker and shorter because of repeated coiling.
At this stage, each chromosome is made up of two identical sister
chromatids as a consequence of replication of DNA during the S
phase. The two chromatids produced from one chromosome are
still attached at one point, called the centromere. The centromere
may divide the chromosome into the shorter arms, also called the
p arms (‘p’ stands for “petite” in French) and the longer q arms. If
the chromosome are stained using Giemsa, alternating dark and
light regions will appear. These are heterochromatin and
euchromatin, respectively. The heterochromatin are more coiled
than the euchromatin.
Metaphase
The nuclear membrane has disappeared while the highly
coiled chromosomes align at the metaphase plate, an imaginary
plane equidistant between the cell’s two poles. Spindle fibers are
also formed. Each fiber binds to a protein called the kinetochore
at the centromere of each sister chromatid of the chromosome.

Anaphase
The paired centromeres of each chromosome separate
towards the opposite poles of the cells as they are pulled by the
spindle fibers through their kinetochores. This liberates the sister
chromatids. Each chromatid is now regarded as a full-fledged
chromosomes and is only made up of one sister chromatid.
Telophase
The chromosomes are now at the opposite poles of the
spindle. They start to uncoil and become indistinct under the light
microscope. A new nuclear membrane forms around them while
the spindle fibers starts to disappear. There is also cytokinesis or
the division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells
immediately after mitosis.

Video of Mitosis