Unit: 2

Hydrodynamic Lubrication: Newton's Law of viscous forces, Flow

through stationary parallel plates. Hagen's poiseuille's theory,
viscometers. Numerical problems, Concept of lightly loaded
bearings, Petroff's equation, Numerical problems.
Viscosity:
• Viscosity of a fluid may be defined as its resistance to flow.
•It is also defined as resistance to shear.
•This resistance is due to internal friction and it is a molecular phenomenon.

•The ability of a fluid film to carry load depends directly on the viscosity of the lubricant.
•As the fluid resists flow, the work done on the fluid is converted in to heat and the
temperature of the fluid and its surroundings increases.
•If the viscosity of the lubricant is too high, heat generated is also too high.
•If the viscosity of the lubricant is too low, then it is difficult to maintain fluid film between
the rubbing surfaces under load.

Hence selection of proper viscosity for a particular bearing is an important factor in

bearing design.
Newton’s Law of viscous Flow (Equation of flow)

•Consider two plane parallel surfaces separated by a fluid film of thickness ‘h’ .
•A force ‘F’ is applied on the upper surface which moves the plate with a constant
velocity ‘u’ with respect to stationary plate (as shown in fig).
•It can be assumed that the film is made up of series of parallel layers as shown in fig
1.2. and the force F makes these layers to slide one over the other.
•The layer in contact with the stationary surface have zero velocity and the layer in
contact with the moving plate has velocity ‘u’
•The intermediate layers have velocities proportional to distance ‘y’ from the stationary
plate.
Fig 1.1 shows an elemental film of cross section dx

ABCD. After a short interval of time this element y

is displace to a new position A1B1C1D1.
Newtons’s law of viscous flow states that
“Shear stress at any point in a fluid is directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain”
i.e αR
Laminar shear of fluid between two plates.
Friction between the fluid and the moving
boundaries causes the fluid to shear. The
force required for this action is a measure of
the fluid's viscosity. This type of flow is known
as a Couette flow.
Absolute Viscosity (Dynamic Viscosity): Absolute viscosity is defined as the force
required to move a plane surface having unit surface area over another plate with unit
velocity when the two surfaces are separate by a layer of fluid of unit thickness.
η or µ = Pa.sec in SI units = N.sec/m2
In CGS units η or µ = dynes.sec/cm2 (This is called Poise) –Commemorates
French scientist.
1 Pa.sec = 10 poise = 6890 Reyns . CGS – 1 Centi poise = 10-2 poise
1 Centi Poise = 10-3 Pa.sec or 10-3 Nsec/m2
Unit of absolute viscosity (CGS Unit) is called 1 poise
1 poise is equal to the viscosity of the fluid requiring a force of 1 dyne to move a unit
area of 1 cm2 over a stationary plate with a velocity of 1 cm/sec when the distance
between the moving and stationary plates is filled by a fluid film of thickness 1 cm.
Newtonian Fluid: A fluid which obeys Newton’s law of viscous flow is called Newtonian
fluid
or a fluid in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear is called
Newtonian fluid
Fluidty: It is reciprocal of Absolute Viscosity.
It shows the property of fluid by which it flows, Fluidity = or

Kinematic Viscosity
� = µk or ηk = ρ = Density of the fluid

In CGS units � = µk or ηk is in stokes (cm2.sec-1)

The SI unit for kinematic viscosity is

Variation of Viscosity with Temperature:

Viscosity of a liquid is a function of temperature
Viscosity of a lubricating oil decreases with increase in temperature
Change in viscosity with increase in temperature is different for different oils
Oils having same viscosity at some temperature may have different viscosity at
another temperature.
 ASTM standards gives the plots for different
grades of oils from which one can find out the
viscosity at a particular temperature

η or µ = for temperature

Ranges 30º to 90º

Z is a constant – ranges from 4x103 to105

Variation of viscosity with pressure

 The viscosity of most of liquids increases with
pressure (Water is exception to this rule since its
viscosity decreases with increase in pressure at
temperature below 20º and pressure below 1000
atm)
 Viscosity of lubricating oil increase with pressure is
relatively slow at lower pressures but the influence
of change in pressure is greater at higher pressure
(Several hundred atmospheres)

ηp or µp = µo . ap

ηpor µp = Absolute viscosity at pressure p (mpa)

 µo = Absolute viscosity at atmospheric pressure (0.1 mpa)
p = Pressure in mpa, a= constant varies between 1.01 to 1.04 for pressure
up to 40 mpa
• From the fig it is seen that effect of pressure is much greater on mineral oil than fatty
oils because temperature and pressure of oil film of an hydro-dynamically lubricated
bearing vary along the fluid film.
• Due to mathematical difficulties arising when analyzing such a bearing the influence
of pressure change and temperature change on the viscosity along the fluid film is
not usually considered and the viscosity corresponding to mean film temperature
and atmospheric pressure is usually assumed during computation.
Viscosity Index:
• Two oils having same viscosity at one
particular temperature will be having
different viscosities at some other
temperature.
• In order to indicate the viscosity of an oil
viscosity index is used.
• This index is an arbitrary number.
• Low viscosity index signifies relatively large
change of viscosity with change of
temperature of oil.
• A higher viscosity index indicates relatively
small change in viscosity.
• To determine the viscosity index for an oil, its
temperature relationship should be compared
with the viscosity indices of two standard oils.
• One of these standard oils having a viscosity
least affected by temperature change is 0 VI

assigned a viscosity index of 100 Sample

• Another oil having a viscosity of extremely high
sensitive to temperature change is assigned a L 100 VI
U
viscosity index of 0. H
• These two oils must be so chosen that their x
viscosity and the viscosity of the oil whose
viscosity index is to be determined is the same 100ºF t °F 210ºF
at temperature of 210ºF.
• Viscosity index is calculated using

VI = X 100
VI = Viscosity index,
U = Viscosity of at 100º F of the oil whose viscosity is to be determined
L = Viscosity at 100º F of an of zero VI
H = Viscosity at 100º F of an of 100 VI
The two oils used as a measure of Viscosity Index are Pennsylvania oil as oil of 100 VI
Gulf coast oil as zero VI
If the bearing operating temperature vary with time we have to choose an oil of high viscosity
Index i.e., which is less sensitive to temperature change.
If the working temperature of the bearing is constant, there is no necessity of oil having high VI.
 [4]
Measurement of Viscosity (Viscometer):
•A viscometer (also called viscosimeter) is an instrument used to measure the
viscosity of a fluid. For liquids with viscosities which vary with flow conditions, an
instrument called a rheometer is used. Viscometers only measure under one flow
condition
•In general, either the fluid remains stationary and an object moves through it, or the
object is stationary and the fluid moves past it. The drag caused by relative motion of the
fluid and a surface is a measure of the viscosity. The flow conditions must have a
sufficiently small value of Reynolds number for there to be laminar flow

Re = Renolds number
µ = Dynamic viscosity
V = Mean velocity
L = Characteristic length
� = Kinematic viscosity
Absolute Viscosity (Dynamic Viscosity): Absolute viscosity is defined as the force
required to move a plane surface having unit surface area over another plate with
unit velocity when the two surfaces are separate by a layer of fluid of unit thickness.
η or µ = Pa.sec in SI units = N.sec/m2
In CGS units η or µ = dynes.sec/cm2 (This is called Poise) –Commemorates
French scientist.
1 Pa.sec = 10 poise = 6890 Reyns . CGS – 1 Centi poise = 10-2 poise
1 Centi Poise = 10-3 Pa.sec or 10-3 Nsec/m2
Unit of absolute viscosity (CGS Unit) is called 1 poise
1 poise is equal to the viscosity of the fluid requiring a force of 1 dyne to move a
unit area of 1 cm2 over a stationary plate with a velocity of 1 cm/sec when the
distance between the moving and stationary plates is filled by a fluid film of
thickness 1 cm.
Newtonian Fluid: A fluid which obeys Newton’s law of viscous flow is called
Newtonian fluid
or a fluid in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear is
called Newtonian fluid
Fluidty: It is reciprocal of Absolute Viscosity.
It shows the property of fluid by which it flows, Fluidity = or

Kinematic Viscosity
� = µk or ηk = ρ = Density of the fluid

In CGS units � = µk or ηk is in stokes (cm2.sec-1)

The SI unit for kinematic viscosity is

Variation of Viscosity with Temperature:

Viscosity of a liquid is a function of temperature
Viscosity of a lubricating oil decreases with increase in temperature
Change in viscosity with increase in temperature is different for different oils
Oils having same viscosity at some temperature may have different viscosity at
another temperature.
 ASTM standards gives the plots for different grades of
oils from which one can find out the viscosity at a
particular temperature

η or µ = for temperature

Ranges 30º to 90º

Z is a constant – ranges from 4x103 to105

Variation of viscosity with pressure

 The viscosity of most of liquids increases with pressure
(Water is exception to this rule since its viscosity
decreases with increase in pressure at temperature
below 20º and pressure below 1000 atm)
 Viscosity of lubricating oil increase with pressure is
relatively slow at lower pressures but the influence of
change in pressure is greater at higher pressure
(Several hundred atmospheres)

ηp or µp = µo . ap

ηpor µp = Absolute viscosity at pressure p (mpa)

 µo = Absolute viscosity at atmospheric pressure (0.1 mpa)
p = Pressure in mpa, a= constant varies between 1.01 to 1.04 for pressure
up to 40 mpa
• From the fig it is seen that effect of pressure is much greater on mineral oil than fatty oils
because temperature and pressure of oil film of an hydro-dynamically lubricated bearing
vary along the fluid film.
• Due to mathematical difficulties arising when analyzing such a bearing the influence of
pressure change and temperature change on the viscosity along the fluid film is not usually
considered and the viscosity corresponding to mean film temperature and atmospheric
pressure is usually assumed during computation.
Viscosity Index:
• Two oils having same viscosity at one
particular temperature will be having
different viscosities at some other
temperature.
• In order to indicate the viscosity of an oil
viscosity index is used.
• This index is an arbitrary number.
• Low viscosity index signifies relatively large
change of viscosity with change of
temperature of oil.
• A higher viscosity index indicates relatively
small change in viscosity.
• To determine the viscosity index for an oil, its
temperature relationship should be compared
with the viscosity indices of two standard oils.
• One of these standard oils having a viscosity
least affected by temperature change is 0 VI

assigned a viscosity index of 100 Sample

• Another oil having a viscosity of extremely high
sensitive to temperature change is assigned a L 100 VI
U
viscosity index of 0. H
• These two oils must be so chosen that their x
viscosity and the viscosity of the oil whose
viscosity index is to be determined is the same 100ºF t °F 210ºF
at temperature of 210ºF.
• Viscosity index is calculated using

VI = X 100
VI = Viscosity index,
U = Viscosity of at 100º F of the oil whose viscosity is to be determined
L = Viscosity at 100º F of an of zero VI
H = Viscosity at 100º F of an of 100 VI
The two oils used as a measure of Viscosity Index are Pennsylvania oil as oil of 100 VI
Gulf coast oil as zero VI
If the bearing operating temperature vary with time we have to choose an oil of high viscosity
Index i.e., which is less sensitive to temperature change.
If the working temperature of the bearing is constant, there is no necessity of oil having high VI.
 [4]
Measurement of Viscosity (Viscometer):
•A viscometer (also called viscosimeter) is an instrument used to measure the
viscosity of a fluid. For liquids with viscosities which vary with flow conditions, an
instrument called a rheometer is used. Viscometers only measure under one flow
condition
•In general, either the fluid remains stationary and an object moves through it, or the
object is stationary and the fluid moves past it. The drag caused by relative motion of the
fluid and a surface is a measure of the viscosity. The flow conditions must have a
sufficiently small value of Reynolds number for there to be laminar flow

Re = Renolds number
µ = Dynamic viscosity
V = Mean velocity
L = Characteristic length
� = Kinematic viscosity
• This apparatus consists of two cylinders. Outer
cylinder (1) is fixed to a table which can be
rotated about its vertical axis at a constant
speed.
• The inner cylinder (2) is suspended by a
torsional wire (4).
• The fluid whose viscosity has to be found is
filled in the space between the two cylinders.
• When outer cylinder rotates the motion in the
liquid between the two cylinders is similar to
the condition of a liquid between two parallel
planes (as discussed before).
• When a torque T is applied on the outer cylinder it rotates and tends to rotate the
inner cylinder.
• Due to this, torsion wire is twisted and the mirror connected to this wire (5) is
displaced angularly.
• The angular displacement of the inner cylinder is measured by the deflection of a
beam of light reflected from the mirror.
• The wire is calibrated such that the deflection of the wire gives a measure of
viscosity.
• This instrument is normally used for determining the viscosity of a liquid having
high viscosity.
Flowers Viscometer (secondary
viscometer):
•This instrument belongs to the category of
secondary viscometer
•The absolute viscosity of liquid cannot be
obtained directly by using a secondary
viscometer.
•To use this instrument for measuring
viscosity, it must be calibrated first by using
liquids of known viscosity.
• It consists of a glass tube with a small ball whose diameter is smaller than the inner
diameter of the tube.
• The tube is filled with the liquid whose viscosity is to be measured.
• After placing the tube in an inclined position to the horizontal, the ball at the left end of
the tube is released. The ball starts to roll down the tube and the electric devise is
used to indicate the instant when the ball reaches the lower end of the tube.
• The time taken by the ball to travel from left end to right end of the tube is a measure
of viscosity of the liquid.

Michell Viscometer:
• Michell viscometer consists of a steel ball (1) of 1 inch diameter and a sperical cup (2)
with hollow groove.
• Three small projetions are provided on the cup at 120 deg apart. These projections
maintain a minimum clearance of about 0.01 mm between ball and cup surface.
• The hollow handle (4) of non conducting
material is connected to the cup.
• Thermometer (3) is inserted in to the
handle for measuring the temperature of
the cup.
• To determine the viscosity of an oil, a
small sample of the oil is place in the
cup while the instrument is held with the
cup upwards.
• The ball placed in the cup and pressed
so that the excess oil enters the
circumferential groove (5).
• In the cup only a layer of oil about 0.01 mm thick fills the space between the ball and
the cup.
• Then the whole instrument is inverted and held vertically with the ball at the lower end
as shown in the fig.
• In this position the ball is suspended for some period of time by the negative pressure
in the film between the ball and the cup.
• Due to the negative pressure in the oil film, oil is sucked from the groove gradually in
to the space between the ball and the cup.
• When the thickness of the oil becomes so high that it can no longer maintain negative
pressure, the ball falls down.
• The time required for this process is proportional to the absolute viscosity of the oil.
Ostwald Viscometer:
•The arrangement o or Ostwald Viscometer is as
shown in the fig.
•Kinematic viscosity is determined by measuring
the time required for the liquid level to drop from
mark (A) to (B).
•This instrument is usually made of glass and
during the test it is immersed in a temperature
controlled water bath.
•The instrument is calibrated as follows
• Here K is a constant value for the given
instrument.
• By using some liquid of known viscosity
and density such as distilled water the
time required for a known volume V to
flow through the capillary is determined.
• This constant is established for the
particular instrument.
• After calibration, the kinematic viscosity
and dynamic viscosity of any fluid can be
measured
Saybolt Viscometer:
•This is standard method of measuring
the viscosity of lubricating oil by using
the Saybolt universal viscometer.
•To measure the viscosity of the oil,
the oil to be tested is heated
approximately to the required
temperature in a separate vessel and
poured into the cup (A) until it reaches
the rim of the cup and just begins to
overflow into the gallery (B).

• The water bath © is heated to the oil temperature by means of an electric heater.
• The flow of the oil through the jet starts when cork (E) is removed.
• The time required in sec to fill the receiving flask up to 60 cm3 graduation mark is a
measure of viscosity of the oil and is designated as Saybolt Universal Viscosity
(SUV). To convert SUV to absolute viscosity following formula may be used.
η = Absolute viscosity cP
= Specific weight(weight density) at temp tºC, N/m3
t = Test temperature in ºC
Hagen's poiseuille's theory:
 In fluid dynamics, the Hagen–Poiseuille equation is a physical law that gives the
pressure drop in a fluid flowing through a long cylindrical pipe.
 Hagen’s Poiseuille deduced the relationship between the rate of flow (discharge) of a
liquid through a capillary and other parameters such as viscosity of the liquid, pressure
in the liquid, diamete and length of the capillary tube
 Assumptions for this equation:
The assumptions mad for deriving the equation are that the
1. Fluid is viscous and incompressible and fills the entire tube
2. The flow is steady and laminar
3. Diameter of the capillary is so small that change in pressure across the capilary can
be neglected.
4. The pressure at the left end of the capillary tube is greater than that at the right end
and pressure drops gradually from left to right
5. There is no acceleration of fluid in the pipe.
The equation is also known as the Hagen–Poiseuille law, Poiseuille law and
Poiseuille equation.
Discharge through capillary tube = Velocity x Area --------------------- (1)

Step-1: Velocity Distributin (u)

Forces on the element
1.Pressure force at the left end
= p x � r2
2.Pressure force at the right
end = (p –dp)x � r2
3. Shear force = � x 2�r x dx
Equilibrium of forces ΣF = 0

----------------------------- (2)
According to Newton’s law of viscosity
� = ηR where R is rate of shear = du/dr

------------------------------ (3) -ve sign indicate negative

velocity gradient
From equations (2) and (3)
 --------------------- (4)

Applying Boundary Conditions to find the constant C i.e At r=R u=0

-------------------------------(5)

Substituting the value of C in equation (4)

----------------- (6)

This equation shows that velocity distribution across the tube is parabolic

Maximum velocity is at r = 0 ie u = umax ---------- (7)

 The Vortex of parabola is on the axis of the capillary tube, When r=0 and maximum
velocity appears on the axis of the capillary tube.
 Using the velocity distribution the rate of flow through capillary can be estimated
 This can be done by integrating the velocity over the cross section of the tube, Since
the product of area of the fluid velocity equal to the low rate of the liquid through
capillary tube

Consider an element ring at a radius ‘r ‘having a thickness ‘dr’

Area of the element da = 2�r x dr ------------------------------ (8)
Step – 3 Discharge

Discharge across the section is , dQ =uda

Substituting u form equation -6 and elemental area da from equation - 7

 -------------------------- (9)

where d = diameter of the capillary tube

------------------------------ (10) Equation 24.17

Page 24.9 DHB
The Flow through the inclined tube open at both the ends and filled with liquid can be
determined with the help of equation (10)
Since atmospheric pressure acts at both
ends of the tube it does not effect the flow L

through the capillary tube. h

The pressure gradient in this case is
R

From equation 9 i.e discharge

or flow rate is given by

Q = Flow rate
R = Inner radius of the tube
Η = Viscosity
Flow between Parallel Stationary plates

Consider two parallel Stationary plated (as shown in fig) of width ‘B’ and a fluid of
thickness ‘h’
Assumptions:
1.Flow is steady and laminar
2.Fluid is incompressible and
completely fills the clearance.
3.Width ‘B’ is assumed to be so
high when compared to ‘h’ (film
thickness) that change in pressure
across the section of the plane can
be neglected.
4.Pressure at the left end of the
clearance is higher than at the
right end and drops gradually from
left to right
 Consider an element of fluid having a thickness ‘2y’ and length ‘dx’
Discharge = Velocity x Area
Step -1
Velocity distribution (u)
Forces acting on the element is
1)Pressure force at the left end = p x b x2y
2)Pressure forces at the right end = (p-dp) b x 2y
3)Sheer force on the element = � x (b x dx) 2
Equilibrium of forces ΣF = 0

-------------------------------- (1)

According to Newton’s law of viscosity

� = ηR where R is rate of shear = - du/dy
 --------------------- (2) Equation E24.1 page 24.3 DHB

Equating Equations 1 & 2

------------------ (3)

Since there is gradual decrease in pressure dp/dx is taken as a constant

To find the velocity of flow integrate equation – (3)

--------------------------- (4)
 Applying boundary Conditions

Hence

Substituting the Value of ‘C’ in equation (4)

The above equation shows that velocity distribution is parabolic and maximum velocity
is at the middle of the section

Maximum velocity is at y=0, u = umax

The maximum velocity occurs

in the middle of the two
surfaces
Consider an element area b x dy above and below the axis through which discharge is
taking place
Area da = b x dy x 2
If P1 and P2 is the difference in pressure between two ends of plates over a
length L

Then discharge
 Fricton Force and Power Loss in Lightly Loaded Journal Bearings
(Petroff’s Equation)
Concept of Lightly Loaded Bearing:
Consider a full journal bearing running
concentrically with the bearing
The journal will run concentrically with the
bearing only when the radial load acting on
journal is equal to zero or the viscosity is
equal to infinity or speed of the journal is
infinity. Journal Indicating Radial Clearance

 This is not feasible in practice

 If the load is light enough, the journal speed is sufficiently high and viscosity is also
sufficiently high, the eccentricity of the bearing is so small that this can be neglected
(i.e the journal can be assumed to be concentric with the bearing)
 In this case the oil film between the journal and bearing may be considered to be of
uniform thickness
 A Lightly Loaded Bearing is defined as a bearing in which the eccentricity of journal
relative to the bearing is so small that Petroff’s equation for a journal running
concentric with the bearing holds good for finding friction force and power loss in the
bearing.
Derivation (Petroff’s Equation)
Assumptions:
1. Bearing carries a very small load
2. Leakage is negligible
3. Viscosity is constant through out the film.
4. The oil film in a journal bearing is always thin relative to the radius of the bearing, the
curvature of the bearing surface may be ignored or neglected and the film may be
considered unwrapped straight prismatic body having a thickness equal to the radial
clearance (Cr) and length equal to 2�r and a width L equal to the length of the
bearing.
Consider journal surface AB moving with constant velocity ‘U’, with respect to
stationary bearing surface,
Length of journal is 2�r and width is L.
Frictional Force
(Eq 24.1; p 24.3 DHB)

Where n is in rpm, n’ is in rps

n’ = n/60
 Cr = Radial clearance
C = Diametral Clearance

(Eq 24.29: P-24.12 DHB)

(Eq 24.45: P-24.17 DHB)

Friction Toruqe MT

Eq 24.20: P-24.10 DHB

Co-efficient of Friction:

dL is projected
area

(Eq 24.21, p-24.10 DHB)

Power loss due to Frictin:

 Towers Experiment:
 Tower conducted experimental investigation on friction of bearings.
 These bearings are partial bearings, 4 inch in diameter and 6 inches long with an arc
of contact 157º.
 Friction forces on the journal surface and Coefficient of friction were determined using
different systems for supplying the lubricant and by using different kinds of liquid
lubricant
 The influence of speed, load and temperature on
friction were investigated using special testing
machine used to conduct these experiments.
 In the first of the series of the tests, Tower tried to
feed the lubricating oil to the bearing through a oil
hole which led the oil to a groove in the middle of
the bearing parallel to the axis of the journal [Fig
2.3 (a)].
 With this experiment it was found that the bearing would not run cool even at low
loads
 Two grooves parallel to this axis on either side of the centre [Fig 2.3 (b)] some what
improved the performance of the bearing but seized at loads which were little higher
than previous case.
 In the next series of tests, grooves and holes were sealed and a pad [Fig 2.3 (C)]was
placed under the journal so that the journal dropped against the pad while rotating.
 The pad was supplied with oil by capillary action from the oil in the tin in which the pad
was placed.
 This arrangement also did not give satisfactory bearing performance since the oil
supplied to the journal was little.
 The load which the bearing could withstand was low and the co-efficient of friction was
high.
 Since this scheme has not given the proper performance, Tower made the bearing to
run immersed in a bath of oil [Fig 2.3 (d)]. This method of bearing gave satisfactory
bearing performance.
 The friction was steady during the experiment and coefficient of friction was
surprisingly low.
 From the result of this investigation, Tower made the following conclusions.
 When an oil bath is used to provide sufficient lubrication,
1. Friction force is nearly constant under different load with some limits.
2. Friction followed the laws of liquid friction.
3. Friction is almost independent of pressure and increases with velocity of the journal.
4. Frictional resistance in the bearing decreases as the temperature increases.
 In the next step, a hole [Fig. 2.3 (e)] was drilled through the cap in the centre of the
bearing in order to install an ordinary lubricator.
 When the shaft rotated the oil began to flow out through this hole. The journal
appeared to act as a pump, pumping the oil from the reservoir out of the bearing.
 This experiment showed that the bearing was actually floating on an oil film.
 In the next step he drilled 9 holes of ¼ inch diameter [Fig 2.3 9(f)] in the bearing and
connected them to the pressure gauges.
 This arrangement helped to measure pressure distribution around the bearing surface.
 The graph in the fig shows the pressure distribution.
 This experiment established the important fact that the journal bearing should be
properly designed and lubricated by a liquid lubricant.
 The journal is supported by pressure developed in the oil film so that no direct contact
takes place between the journal and bearing.