Lecture

Slides

Chapter 3

Load and Stress

Analysis

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Chapter
Outline
1 Equilibrium and Free-Body Diagrams
2 Shear Force and Bending Moments in Beams
3 Singularity Functions
4 Stress
5 Cartesian Stress Components
6 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress
7 General Three-Dimensional Stress
8 Elastic Strain
9 Uniformly Distributed Stresses
10Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending 3-11
Shear Stresses for Beams in Bending
3-12 Torsion
13 Stress Concentration
14 Stresses in Pressurized Cylinders
15 Stresses in Rotating Rings
16 Press and Shrink Fits
17 Temperature Effects
18 Curved Beams in Bending
19 Contact Stresses
Summary Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
 Equilibrium and Free-Body Diagrams

• Equilibrium
A system with zero acceleration is said to be in
equilibrium, if that system is motionless or, at
most, has constant velocity.

• Free-Body Diagram
Free-body diagrams help simplifying the analysis
of a very complex structure or machine by
successively isolating each element and then
studying and analyzing it.

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Example 3-1

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Example 3-1
Solution

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Example 3-1

Output shaft
Input shaft

Gear box
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Example 3-1

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Example 3-1

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Example 3-1

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Shear Force and Bending Moments in Beams

 Cut beam at any location x1
 Internal shear force V and bending moment M must ensure
equilibrium

Sign Conventions

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Shear Force and Bending Moments in Beams

Distributed Load on Beam

 Distributed load q(x) called load intensity

 Units of force per unit length

Relationships between Load, Shear, and Bending

• The change in shear force from A to

B is equal to the area of the loading
diagram between xA and xB.

• The change in moment from A to B is

equal to the area of the shear-force
diagram between xA and xB.

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Shear Force and Bending Moments in Beams

Example 3-2

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Shear Force and Bending Moments in Beams

Example 3-3

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Cartesian Stress Component

 Normal stress is normal to a surface, designated by

 Shear stress is tangent to a surface, designated by 

Stress element
Represents stress at a point
 Coordinate directions are arbitrary
Choosing coordinates which result in zero shear stress will
produce principal stresses

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Plane-Stress Transformation Equations

• Cutting plane stress element at an arbitrary angle and

balancing stresses gives plane-stress transformation equations

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Principal Stresses for Plane Stress

Principal stresses

Principal directions (zero shear stresses)

Maximum shear stresses

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Maximum Shear Stress

There are always three principal stresses. One is zero for plane
stress.
 There are always three extreme-value shear stresses.

 The maximum shear stress is always the greatest of these three

 If principal stresses are ordered so that 1 > 2 > 3,
then max = 1/3

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Mohr’s Circle Diagram

Parametric relationship between

and  (with 2 as parameter)
Relationship is a circle with
center at

C = ( , ) = [( x + y)/2, 0]


 x   y 
2

R     2
xy
 2 

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Example 3-4

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Example 3-4
x-y orientation Principal stress orientation

Max shear orientation

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General Three-Dimensional Stress

All stress elements are actually 3-D.

Plane stress elements simply have one surface with zero stresses.
For cases where there is no stress-free surface, the principal
stresses are found from the roots of the cubic equation

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General Three-Dimensional Stress

• Always three extreme shear values

• Maximum Shear Stress is the largest

• Principal stresses are usually ordered such that 1 > 2 > 3,
in which case max = 1/3

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work

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work
(a)

8  7
C  0.5 MPa
2
87
CD  7.5 MPa
2
R  7.52  62  9.60 MPa
1  9.60  0.5 9.10 MPa
 2  0.5  9.6  10.1 Mpa

1  7.5  
 p   90 tan 1
 6   70.67 
cw
2   
1  R  9.60 MPa
s  70.67  45  25.67 cw

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(b)
96
C  1.5 MPa
2
96
CD   7.5MPa
2
R  7.52  32  8.078 MPa
1  1.5  8.078  9.58 MPa
 2  1.5  8.078  6.58 MPa

 p  tan 1    10.9 cw
1 3
2  7.5 
1  R  8.078 MPa
s  45 10.9  34.1 ccw

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(c)
12  4
C 4 MPa
2
12  4
CD   8 MPa
2
R  82  72  10.63MPa
1  4 10.63 14.63 MPa
 2  4 10.63  6.63 MPa

1  8 
 p   90 tan  7   69.4 ccw
1 

2   
1  R  10.63MPa
s  69.4  45  24.4 ccw

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(d)
65
C  0.5MPa
2
65
CD  5.5 MPa
2
R  5.52  82  9.71MPa
1  0.5  9.71  10.21 MPa
 2  0.5  9.71  9.21 MPa

 p  tan 1    27.75 ccw

1 8
2  5.5 
1  R  9.71 MPa
s  45  27.75  17.25 cw

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Elastic Strain

• Hooke’s law

• E is Young’s modulus, or modulus of elasticity

• Tension in on direction produces negative strain (contraction)
in a perpendicular direction.
• For axial stress in x direction,

• The constant of proportionality  is Poisson’s ratio

• See Table A-5 for values for common materials.

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Elastic Strain

 For a stress element undergoing x,  y, and  z, simultaneously,

 Hooke’s law for shear:

 Shear strain G is the change in a right angle of a stress element

when subjected to pure shear stress.
 G is the shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity.
 For a linear, isotropic, homogeneous material,

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Uniformly Distributed Stresses

• Uniformly distributed stress distribution is often assumed for

pure tension, pure compression, or pure shear.
• For tension and compression,

• For direct shear (no bending present),

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Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending

• Straight beam in positive bending

• x axis is neutral axis
• xz plane is neutral plane
• Neutral axis is coincident with the
centroidal axis of the cross section
• Bending stress varies linearly with
distance from neutral axis, y

• I is the second-area moment about

the z axis

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Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending

 Maximum bending stress is where y is greatest.

 c is the magnitude of the greatest y

 Z = I/c is the section modulus

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Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending

Pure bending (though effects of axial, torsional, and shear loads

are often assumed to have minimal effect on bending stress)
 Material is isotropic and homogeneous
 Material obeys Hooke’s law
 Beam is initially straight with constant cross section
 Beam has axis of symmetry in the plane of bending
Proportions are such that failure is by bending rather than
crushing, wrinkling, or sidewise buckling
 Plane cross sections remain plane during bending

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Example 3-5

Dimensions in mm

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Example 3-5
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Example 3-5

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Example 3-5

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Example 3-5

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Two-Plane Bending

• Consider bending in both xy-plane and xz-plane

• Cross sections with one or two planes of symmetry only

• For solid circular cross section, the maximum bending stress

is

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Example 3-6

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Example 3-6

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Example 3-6

Answer

Answer

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Example 3-6

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Shear Stress for Beams in Bending

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Shear Stress for Beams in Bending

• Transverse shear stress is always accompanied with bending

stress.
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Transverse Shear Stress in a Rectangular Beam

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Maximum Values of Transverse Shear Stress

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 Significance of Transverse Shear Compared to Bending
Example: Cantilever beam, rectangular cross section
◦ Maximum shear stress, including
bending stress (My/I) and transverse shear stress (VQ/Ib),

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Significance of Transverse Shear Compared to
 Critical stress element (largest  ) will always be either
Bending max
◦ Due to bending, on the outer surface (y/c=1), where the transverse
shear is zero
◦ Or due to transverse shear at the neutral axis (y/c=0), where the
bending is zero
 Transition happens at some critical value of L/h
 Valid for any cross section that does not increase in width farther away
from the neutral axis.
◦ Includes round and rectangular solids, but not I beams and channels

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Example 3-7

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Example 3-7

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Example 3-7

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Example 3-7

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Example 3-7

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Example 3-7

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Torsion
• Torque vector – a moment vector collinear with axis of a
mechanical element
• A bar subjected to a torque vector is said to be in torsion
• Angle of twist, in radians, for a solid round bar

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Torsion

• For round bar in torsion, torsional shear stress is proportional

to the radius r

• Maximum torsional shear stress is at the outer surface

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Assumption for Torsion Equations

Torsional Equations are only applicable for the following

conditions
•Pure torque
•Remote from any discontinuities or point of application of
torque
• Material obeys Hooke’s law
•Adjacent cross sections originally plane and parallel remain
plane and parallel
• Radial lines remain straight
•Depends on axisymmetry, so does not hold true for
noncircular cross sections

 Consequently, only applicable for round cross sections

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Torsional Shear in Rectangular Section

Shear stress does not vary linearly with radial

distance for rectangular cross section
 Shear stress is zero at the corners
Maximum shear stress is at the middle of the longest
side
 For rectangular b x c bar, where b is longest side

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Power, Speed, and Torque

 Power equals torque times speed

 A convenient conversion with speed in rpm

where H = power, W
n = angular velocity, revolutions per minute

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Power, Speed, and Torque

 In U.S. Customary units, with unit conversion built in

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Example 3-8

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Example 3-8

TA = T2
= 0.13 kN-m Tc = 1.3k (0.038)
MA = 1.3k (0.125) F = 1.3 kN = 0.05 kN-m
= 0.66 kN-m

F = 1.3 kN M2 = T1 = 0.05kN-m

F = 1.3 kN T1 = 0.05kN-m

M1 = 1.3k (0.1)
=0.13 kN-m
F = 1.3 kN
T2 = M1
= 0.13 kN-m

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Example 3-8

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Example 3-8

Tc = 1.3k (0.038)
F = 1.3 kN = 0.05 kN-m

T1 = 0.05kN-m

M1 = 1.3k (0.1)
=0.13 kN-m
F = 1.3 kN

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Example 3-8

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Example 3-8

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Example 3-8

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Example 3-8

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Example 3-9

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Example 3-9

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Example 3-9

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Example 3-9
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Example 3-9

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Example 3-9

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Closed Thin-Walled Tubes

 Wall thickness t << tube radius r (r/t > 10) Shear flow (q)
 Product of shear stress times wall thickness is constant (q   t  constant)
 Shear stress is inversely proportional to wall thickness
 Total torque T is

 Am is the area enclosed by the section median line

Fig. 3−25
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Closed Thin-Walled Tubes

 Solving for shear stress

 Angular twist (radians) per unit length

 Lm is the length of the section median line

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Example 3–10

Fig. 3−26

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Example 3–10

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Example 3–11

Solution

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Open Thin-Walled Sections

 When the median wall line is not closed, the section is said to be
an open section
 Some common open thin-walled sections

Fig. 3−27

 Torsional shear stress

where
T = Torque, L = length of median line, c = wall thickness,
G = shear modulus, and 1 = angle of twist per unit length

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Open Thin-Walled Sections

 Shear stress is inversely proportional to c2

 Angle of twist is inversely proportional to c3
 For small wall thickness, stress and twist can become quite large
 Example:
◦ Compare thin round tube with and without slit
◦ Ratio of wall thickness to outside diameter of 0.1
◦ Stress with slit is 12.3 times greater
◦ Twist with slit is 61.5 times greater

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Example 3-12

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Example 3-12

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Example 3-12

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Stress Concentration
• Localized increase of stress near discontinuities
• Kt is Theoretical (Geometric) Stress Concentration Factor

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Theoretical Stress Concentration Factor

• Graphs available for

standard configurations
• See Appendix A-15 and
A-16 for common examples
• Many more in Peterson’s
Stress-Concentration
Factors
• Note the trend for higher Kt
at sharper discontinuity
radius, and at greater
disruption

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Example 3-13

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Example 3-13

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Example 3-13

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Example 3-13

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Contact Stress

• Two bodies with curved surfaces pressed together

• Point or line contact changes to area contact
• Stresses developed are three-dimensional
• Called contact stresses or Hertzian stresses
• Common examples
– Wheel rolling on rail
– Mating gear teeth
– Rolling bearings

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Spherical Contact Stress

• Two solid spheres of diameters d1 and d2 are pressed together

with force F
• Circular area of contact of radius a

 Pressure distribution is hemispherical

 Maximum pressure at the center of contact area

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Spherical Contact Stress

• Maximum stresses on the z axis

• Principal stresses

• From Mohr’s circle, maximum shear stress is

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Cylindrical Contact Stress

• Two right circular cylinders with length l

and diameters d1 and d2
• Area of contact is a narrow rectangle of width
2b and length l
• Pressure distribution is elliptical
• Half-width b

• Maximum pressure

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Cylindrical Contact Stress

• Maximum stresses on z axis

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