Theories of

motor learning
PRESENTED BY - INDIRA NAIDU.B
MODERATOR- DR.SENTHIL KUMARAN D

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 DEFINITION

PRACTICE Historical
CONDITIONS Development

FEEDBACK
MOTOR NATURE OF
LEARNING LEARNING

THEORIES
RELATED TO FORMS OF
STAGES OF LEARNING
LEARNING
THEORIES OF
MOTOR
LEARNING

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 INTRODUCTION
Studying the cause and nature of movement is essential in medical
practice.
Theories are often based on models of brain function,
philosophically reflecting different criteria on how movement is
controlled by the brain.
Seen as key fields of study for health professionals in the field of
motor rehabilitation.

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Learning: The process of acquiring knowledge
Learning is the act of acquiring new or modifying and
reinforcing existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values,
or preferences which may lead to a potential change.

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 Motor learning
Definition:
“A set of processes associated with practice or experience leading to
relatively permanent changes in the capability for movement” (Schmidt
& Lee, 2005)
change of behavior and activity
"An internal neurologic process that results in the ability to produce a
new motor task".

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As applied to patients, motor learning is the acquisition & re-
acquisition of previously learned actions in the presence of
altered morphology (sensory, motor or cognitive impairment).

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CONCEPTS (Schmidt & Lee, 2005)
1) Learning is a process of acquiring the capability for skilled action.
2) Learning results from experience or practice.
3) Learning cannot be measured directly, instead it is interfered
based on behavior.
4) Learning produces relatively permanent changes in behavior, thus
short term alteration are not thought of as learning.

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Historical Development of Motor
Learning
Early Period (1880-1940)
Research focused on how did mind worked, not the production
of skills.
Thorndike: Law of Effect
When responses were rewarded, the behavior strengthened.

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Middle Period (1940-1970)
Craik focused research on how the brain processes and uses
information to determine the motor response.
Henry:
“Memory drum theory” (role of cognitive activity in motor
learning)

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Present Period (1970-present)
 Emergence of motor learning within physical education
programs.
Closed Loop theory (Adams)
Schema theory (Schmidt)
Ecological Theory

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 MOTOR control & motor learning
Motor control is the study of Motor learning is the study of
nature and control of the the acquisition or modification
movement of movement
Focuses on understanding the Focuses on understanding the
control of movement already modification of movement
acquired

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Performance ≠ learning
Motor performance is the temporary change in motor behavior seen during
practice sessions.
 May be due to performance conditions.
• Facilitation
• Motivation
Motor learning is a permanent change in movement behavior measured after
retention period.
Motor learning is only due to practice.

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Basic forms of long term
learning
1) Declarative learning(Explicit) =
Non associative
learned motor task needs learning
attention + consciousness
2) Non-declarative Implicit
Associative
learning(Implicit) = performed (non declarative) learning
automatically without
consciousness Two forms of
Procedural
long term
 More reflexive learning
learning
 Automatic
 Habitual Explicit
 Frequent repetition Facts and events
(declarative)

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 NON ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING
Simplest forms of learning.
Involving reflex pathways.
2 forms of learning.
1) Habituation
2) Sensitization
Habituation is a decrease in responsiveness that occurs as a result of repeated exposure
to a non painful stimulus. (Kandel et al, 2000)
Sensitization is an increase responsiveness following a threatening or noxious stimulus

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 ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING

It is through associative learning that a person learns to predict

relationships of ones stimulus to another (classical conditioning).
Or the relationship of ones behavior to a consequence (operant
conditioning).

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Classical conditioning
Consists of learning to pair two stimuli( Conditioned Stimulus and
Unconditioned Stimulus)
Before learning:
CS no response
UCS UC response
After learning:
CS CR

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Operant conditioning
It is basically trail and error learning.
Associate with a response.
It has a principle called “law of effect”.
Plays a major role in determining the behaviors shown by patients.
Operant conditioning can be an effective tool during clinical
intervention.

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 PROCEDURAL LEARNING
Refers to learning tasks that can be performed automatically without attention
or conscious thought, like a habit.

Develops slowly through repetition of an act over many trails.

One automatically learns the movement itself - movement schema.

Striatum of the basal ganglia is critical to procedural learning.

During motor skill acquisition repeating a movement continuously leads to

procedural learning.
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Declarative learning
Declarative (explicit) learning results in knowledge that can be consciously
recalled and thus requires processes such as awareness, attention, and
reflection.

Involves the ability to remember factual knowledge.

Regions of brain: include medial temporal areas, sensory association cortex,

hippocampus.

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4 types of processing
1. Encoding: Level of attention & motivation to the movement.

2. Consolidation: Process of making information stable for long term memory

storage (involves structural changes in neurons).

3. Storage: Involves long term retention of memories.

4. Retrieval: Recall of information from different storage sites.

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Theories Of Motor
Learning

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 Adams
Closed Loop
Theory

Schmidt's Ecological
Schema Theory
Theory

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 Adams Closed Loop Theory
(JACK ADAMS 1971)

Closed Loop - Sensory feedback is used for the ongoing production

of skilled movement

Slow movements

Relies on sensory feedback (Sherrington)

Errors are detected by comparing movements that are produced

earlier intended movement.

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Memory Trace –used in the selection Initiation of movement

Perceptual Trace - Built up over a period of practice & becomes the

reference of correctness(detect error)

Correct perceptual trace – become stronger with practice

As knowledge of result (feedback) helps the patient to determine how

next movement should be made more precise.

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CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS
Accuracy of a movement α strength of the perceptual trace
Practice the movement repeatedly to develop and strengthen
the perceptual trace
Increase Practice → Increase Learning
Errors produced during learning → Increase strength of
incorrect perceptual trace

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LIMITATIONS

Accurate movement can occur in the absence of FB

Would require a separate perceptual trace for every
possible movement

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 Schmidt's Schema Theory
Open Loop control process
Schmidt proposed that motor programs do not contain the specifics
of movements, but instead contain generalized rules for a specific
class of movements.
Schema – Abstract representation stored in memory

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Generalized Motor Program - creating the spatial and temporal
pattern of muscle activity which needed to carry out a given
movement.
Variability of Practice → Improve Motor Learning
Movement is regulated by a negative FB system
Any error information is fed back into the schema & schema is
modified as a result of sensory feedback.

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After individual makes a movement, 4 things are available for
brief storage in short term memory
1. The initial movement conditions
2. Parameters in the generalized motor program
3. Outcome of the movement (knowledge of result)
4. Sensory consequences of movement
Abstracted into 2 schemas

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Recall schema (motor)
Used to select a specific response
Nervous system creates a relationship between the parameter and
the movement outcome.
In a movement, the initial conditions and desired goal of the
movement are the inputs to the recall schema.

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Recognition schema (sensory)
used to evaluate the response
Sensory consequences and outcomes of previous similar
movements are compared to sensory information of the ongoing
movement.
Decision process involves formulating an error signal
With increased variability of practice, the recognition schema
becomes more generalized and stronger

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CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS
Optimal Learning → Task practiced under many different conditions
Positive benefits for error production (learn from own mistakes)
Schema has rules for all stored elements, not just correct elements

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LIMITATIONS
Too vague to test
Inconsistent experimental support
Lacks specificity
Strong support with children( Kerr & Booth,1977)
Inconsistent findings with adults- experience (Shapiro & Schmidt 1982)
Cannot account for one-trial learning

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 Ecological Theory (Karl Newell Drew,1991)
Based on Systems & Ecological Motor Control Theories
Motor Learning = Increases coordination between perception and
action through task & environmental constraints.
Perceptual/motor workspace - Identifies movements and perceptual
cues most relevant to performance of task

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Perceptual information relates to understanding the goal of the
task and the movements to be learned.
Another role of perceptual information is a feedback , both during
the movement(knowledge of performance) and on completion of
movement (knowledge of results).
Optimal task - relevant mapping of perception & action.

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CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS
Patient learns to distinguish relevant perceptual cues important to
action.
Learns to discriminate relevant from irrelevant perceptual cues.

LIMITATIONS
More variables are need to be considered.
Still a very new theory
Applied only for specific motor skill in a systematic way.

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Theories related to stages of motor learning

Three-Stage
Model ( Fitts and
Poser 1967)

Systems three Two-Stage

stage model Model
(Bernstein (Gentile 1987)
1967)

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 Three-Stage Model (Fitts and Poser 1967)

1. Cognitive Stage of learning:

Learning what to do
2. Associative stage of learning:
Refining the movement pattern
3. Autonomous stage of learning:
Developing skill

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Cognitive Stage of learning
Characteristics
Movements are slow, inconsistent and inefficient.
Considerable cognitive activity is required.
Attention Demands
Attention to understand what must move to produce a specific result.
Large parts of the movement are controlled consciously
Practice sessions are:
performance focused
less variable
incorporate a clear mental image (technical & visual).

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Associative Stage
Characteristics
Movements are more fluid, reliable and efficient

Less cognitive activity is required

Attention Demands

Some parts of the movements are controlled consciously, some automatically.

Practice sessions are:

Practice sessions link performance and results, conditions can be varied.

Clear Mental Image = Accurate Performance

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Autonomous Stage
Characteristics
Movements are accurate, consistent and efficient.
Little or no cognitive activity is required.

Attention Demands
Movement is largely controlled automatically
Attention can be focused on tactical choices
Practice sessions are:
Practice sessions are more results orientated
Focus is on greater range of movement, speed, acceleration and use of skill in a novel situation.

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Systems three stage model
Emphasis is on controlling degrees of freedom as a central component of learning a new movement
skill
3 stages: The novice
stage

The advanced
stage

The expert
stage

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The novice stage
Simplifies the movement - to reduce the degrees of freedom
Depends on the task

The advanced stage

Allowing movements at more joints involved in the task.
Contraction of agonist and antagonist muscles – joint
Muscle synergies across a number of joints – well coordinated movement

The expert stage

All degrees of movement is necessary for task.
Individual – mechanics of the musculoskeletal system and environment.

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Clinical implications
It offers a new rationale for using developmental stages in rehabilitation.
Biomechanical perceptive – gradual release of degrees of freedom(that must be
controlled).

Limitations
As been noted that very little research has been focused.
Takes months or years to bring many subjects to this skill level
Largely unknown (Schmidt, 1988)

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 GENTILE’S TWO STAGE MODEL
The First stage
 The goal of the learner is to develop an understanding of the task dynamics.

 Includes understanding the goal of the task, developing movement strategies, and
environment.

 Distinguishes, regulatory features of environment from those that are non

regulatory.

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The Second stage(fixation/diversification stage)
 The goal of the learner is to refine the movement.

 Refining movement includes both developing the capability of adapting the

movement to changing tasks and the environmental demands & performing
task efficiently.

 Fixation refers to the distinct requirements of open versus closed skills.

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Closed skill - Movement
consistency that occurs with
repeated practice under
unchanging conditions.
Open skills - changing
environment conditions require
movement diversification

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 Feedback
The definition of feedback includes all sensory information that is available as the
result of a movement that a person has produced (response produced feedback)

Types of FB
Intrinsic (or inherent) feedback
 Through sensory systems: include visual information &somatosensory
information
 Proprioception about the movement process (KP)
Extrinsic (or augmented) feedback
 Verbal or manual guidance
 Information about the result of the movement (KR)

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 PRACTICE CONDITIONS
Massed versus Distributed Practice
Distributed in early stage, massed in later stage
Amount of practice time and amount of rest time

Constant versus Variable Practice

Constant practice improves performance
Variable practice improves learning and transfer

Random versus Blocked Practice (Magill & Hall,1990)

Randomizing practice conditions promote best learning and transfer

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Whole versus Part Practice
Task analysis: the process of identifying the components of a movement and
then ordering them into movement
Part task training can be effective (Schmidt & Winstein,1991)

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Transfer
Amount of transfer is determined by the similarity between the two tasks or the
two environments.
The more closely the demands of the practice environment resemble those in
the performance environment, the better the transfer (Schmidt & lee,1991)
Guided versus Discovery Practice
Practice under unguided conditioned was found to be less effective for
acquisition of the skill, but was more effective for later retention and transfer.
(Singer,1980)

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Mental Practice
The act of performing the skill in one’s imagination, with no act involved.

Can produce large positive effects on performance of the task (Rawlings 1972)

During mental practice the same brain areas (primary and supplementary motor
areas) are active that are active during the physical performance of the task

Research results indicate combination of physical and mental practice produces best
results of all

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 SUMMARY
What is motor learning?

Nature of learning

Forms of learning

Motor learning theories

Stages of motor learning

Feedback

Practice conditions

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 REFERENCES
Shumway-Cook A, Wollacott MH. Motor Learning: Theory and practical applications. Baltimore:
Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2000

REVIEW ARTICLE: Theories and control models and motor learning: Clinical applications in
neuro rehabilitation, December 2011

Essential Concepts of Motor Control & Learning: Presentation by DM Mc Keough.

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ANY QUESTIONS

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