Organisational Behaviour and Human Capital: Elizabeth M. Ineson Bed (Hons) MSC PHD Cert Ed. (Dist.) Fih Finsttt

Organisational Behaviour
and Human Capital
Elizabeth M. Ineson
BEd(Hons) MSc PhD Cert Ed. (Dist.) FIH FInstTT
Iasi, May 2018
Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth M. Ineson 1

and Human Capital
 Definitions and current issues

 Tacit knowledge
 Social cognitive theory
 Managerial competenc(i)es
 Types of intelligence
 Employee loyalty
 Organisational citizenship behaviour; volunteers
 Work/family conflict
 Diversity management
 Talent management

 Interdisciplinary field - includes sociology,

psychology, communication and management
 Study of the way people interact within groups
 Includes both group and individual performance
and activity within an organisation
 Examines human behaviour in a work
environment
 Determines its impact on job structure,
performance, communication, motivation,
leadership, etc.
Human Capital - definition
 The skills, knowledge, and experience
 possessed by an individual or population (managers/staff)
 viewed in terms of their value or cost to the organisation

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth 4M. Ineson
Organisational Behaviour – study can help you
to answer various questions, for example:
1. How might analytical, emotional and practical intelligence affect
behaviour in organisations?
2. When and why do individuals conform in group situations?
3. Are cohesive groups better than diverse groups?
4. Is there one best leadership style?
5. Why are some individuals or groups in organisations more

powerful than others?
6. How does organisational culture influence behaviour and

organisational performance?
Organisational Behaviour Management (OBM)
Form of behavioural analysis
Applies psychological principles of OB
Examines behaviour of individuals and groups

in order to improve performance and well-
being in the workplace

Reflective Practice (RP)
and Tacit Knowledge (TK)
 RP takes account of individual differences in the ability to learn from experience
 Reflection training develops acquisition of TK; enhances experiential learning
 Possibly enhances practical problem solving in real-world simulations
 Cognitive factors may have bearing on experiential learning
 Development of social cognitive learning theory-based methods and measures are

a critical challenge in higher education and professional development
 Development should increase capacity for quick and effective experiential learning
(Matthew and Sternberg, 2009)

Social Cognitive Theory
 Three inter-related variables (B,P,E)
 New experiences evaluated based on analysis of past experiences -
causes learning to occur
 Effective, positive learning requires positive personal characteristics,
appropriate behaviour and supportive environment
Behavioural factors
Cognitive processes B&E can modify
affect behaviour each other
Personal i.e. Cognitive, Environmental factors

Affective & Biological (extrinsic)
events (intrinsic)
Beliefs, ideas, competencies modified
by external factors (e.g. people, work conditions)
(Pajares, 2002)

Social Cognitive Theory
Basic Concepts
 Observational Learning
Watch; gain knowledge; behavioural changes?
 Reproduction
Continuous repetition of a behaviour; needs comfortable environment and readily
accessible materials to motivate and promote learning, retention and encourage
practice
 Self-efficacy
New knowledge or behaviours improved by putting into practice
 Emotional coping
Good coping mechanisms when environment is stressful and personal problems occur
can lead to effective learning, especially in adults.
 Self-regulatory capability
Ability to control behaviour even within an unfavourable environment
(Pajares, 2002)

Defining Competencies
‘the combined skills acquired during the course of training

which condition the efficient performance of tasks in a job,
based on the knowledge, experience and predisposition of
an individual, and displayed in a sequence of behaviour’
(Baczyńska, 2015), based on a variety of previous definitions.
Training is important in the development of competencies

(Agut and Grau, 2002 )

Organisational Behaviour, Managerial
Competencies and Intelligence
Organisational Behaviour is associated with competencies
 Abilities that determine the efficient execution of work

tasks; linked to success in an organisation
To what extent are managerial competencies linked to

intelligence?
 Researchers have identified three main types of

intelligence: analytical (fluid), emotional and practical

Analytical Intelligence
 Reflected in the speed of thought processes, which is linked to the
speed and quality of nerve impulses sent in neurons
 Displayed in cognitive tests mainly through non-verbal tests and

tasks (e.g. measuring spatial ability), verbal tests (e.g. vocabulary
and logic) and numerical tests (arithmetic etc.)
See for example: https://www.cebglobal.com/shldirect/en/practice-

tests
 Traditional view (e.g. Schmidt & Hunter, 1998; Spearman, 1927)

assumed that many competencies stem from analytical intelligence
(AI)
 They concluded that AI should be used in the job selection process

Emotional Intelligence (EI)
 Ability to understand and control interpersonal emotions and

to recognise and respond to those of others
 Underpinned by belief that success depends only partly on

intellect but more importantly on behaviour and reactions
over time
In the new millennium, well developed EI

emerged as an important and effective business
and personal skill

Practical Intelligence
 Ability of individual to seek ideal fit between

self and situational demands
Person may:
 adapt quickly or
 adjust in time or
 ultimately to seek a new environment in
context of realising important personal life
goals
(Sternberg, 1985)
Analytical, Emotional or Practical
Intelligence?
Which type would you say is most predictive of

hospitality/tourism managerial job
performance?
How are managers in your organisation

recruited?

Assessment Centres:
Measuring Cognitive Abilities
Examples of reputable companies:
 Thomas International
https://www.thomasinternational.net/en-
gb/assessments/assessments-by-type/cognitive/
 Saville and Holdsworth

https://online.shl.com/gb/en-gb
Numerous disreputable companies distributing tests

(some very expensive; some free of charge) that are
neither reliable nor valid to unqualified personnel

Emotional Intelligence
Emotional and Social Competence Inventory
 Co-designed by Daniel Goleman, Richard Boyatzis and Hay Group
 Assesses emotional and social competencies that distinguish
outstanding leaders
 Training and certification available from HayGroup in Boston, USA
and in London, UK
 Talent Smart claim to be world’s no 1 provider of EI assessments
See: http://www.haygroup.com/en/our-services/develop/emotional-intelligence-
development-program/#tpfCID0
Quiz at : http://www.haygroup.com/Quizzes/en-us/Emotional-Intelligence-Quiz.aspx
but you need to supply personal details
Also see
 http://www.talentsmart.com/

Assess your EI
 As honestly as you can, estimate how you rate in the eyes
of your peers, senior managers, and students/subordinates
on each of the traits listed
 Use a scale of one to four, with four representing strong

agreement, and one, strong disagreement
 You may, if you wish, ask someone else who knows you well
also to assess you for comparative purposes
 All scores will remain confidential unless you want to share

them

Elements of EI
Intrapersonal Interpersonal
 Self awareness: knowing own
emotions; instant recognition of  Empathy: recognising emotions in
others; displaying awareness and
feelings or emotions empathy in social situations
 Self control: managing emotions;  Social skills: handling

dealing with feelings and relationships; skilled in
emotions in an appropriate the art of social competence.
manner
(Salovey & Mayer 1990; Goleman 1996)
 Motivation: motivating oneself;
using emotions positively to
move towards or to achieve a
goal

EI in the Context of Hotel Management
Graduate Trainee Recruitment
Quality Rank 1997 study
Self-awareness Self-sufficiency 7=
Self-control The ability to take responsibility for oneself 3=
Motivation Enthusiasm 1
Self-motivation 2
Hard work 3=
Creative/flexible approach to problem solving 7=
Social skills Social skills 3=

Oral communication skills 7=
Empathy? (Ineson, 1997)

Self or peer assessment of EI is not ideal for recruitment or promotional purposes
Application of EI in
Tourism/Hospitality
 Communication  People management
verbal and non-verbal (self- respect;
presentation; body language; consistency;
empathy; acknowledgment of gratitude;
ideas) referee;
listen;
availability;
 Self-management share information;
deal with stress; stand by decisions;
plan; authenticity.
(listen and) reflect;
self-control;
(Ineson, 2000)
humour; politeness.

E I and Management Education
(i) Teaching and learning (ii) Curriculum development
 Reduce formal, didactic lecture  Improve education/industry links;
involve industrial and academic
process personnel
 Maximise student-centred (iii) Assessment

experience  Reduce rote learning and routine
performance.
 Intensive timetabling, i.e. blocks  Measure full spectrum of abilities
or concentrated into fewest and qualities
possible days.  Ensure that learning outcomes for
course are being evaluated in
most economical and effective
 Student takes increasing way
responsibility for planning and  Incorporate industrial client, peer
organising his/her own workload and self- assessment
(Ineson, 2000)
EI is trainable; EI can be developed
 Cannot be learned in a brief  Managers who are being trained in
seminar. self-development need to be ready
to change and motivated to change
 The ability to balance hard
elements with emotions
 Open minded; > one training route
 People will not (maybe cannot) to success
change simply because another
person desires this change  Development requires self-
assessment then conscious
 Most people prefer to learn from behavioural change
own mistakes and experience as determination, practice and feedback
opposed to taking on board change in culture ; must be initiated
experience of trainer or developer by and evolve from the individual
The key question is: ‘Have both the
culture and the behaviour of the  No short cuts ; never too old to start
individual changed?’ learning!
EI and Success
Prior studies link certain elements of EI with successful HM (for example,
Bacon, 2004; Kernebach & Schutte, 2005; O’Sullivan, 2000)
 What qualities make a successful hospitality manager?
 How do we measure managerial success?
 Is a successful manger an effective manger?
Customer and employee satisfaction linked to well developed EI
EI twice as important as cognitive or technical skills for high job performance

and, at top level, virtually all-important (Fatt, 2002)
It may be beneficial to use EI profiles for job matching using 360o profiling to
identify individuals strengths and weaknesses

EI and Success
Abilities, interests and personality develop in parallel such that
 interest determines the motivation to attempt a task
 ability level and personality dispositions determine the probability of

success in task
Not only can interest in a job or project contribute to success but also success
can lead to increasing interest in job – encouraging retention.
Lack of interest can promote poor performance, failure and/or dropout from
educational courses and high turnover in workplace.
(Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Kuncel, Hezlett & Ones, 2001)

Value of Well-developed EI re
Globalisation and Competitiveness
 Information exchange
 Change management
 Flexibility, creativity, adeptness, adaptability and

responsiveness - survival tools
 Empathy - essential component of cross-cultural dialogue
EMPATHY
may not be given enough attention in business management
research in comparison with the ‘harder’ personality dimensions
Managerial Success
(See Goleman, 1998)
What is the most important asset involving personal contact?
PERSUASIVENESS
To persuade - to induce by advice - to engage attention by adjusting a
message to the recipients’ interest - to respond to questions - to achieve
objectives
To be persuasive, person needs to learn the emotional competencies required
to succeed in his/her particular role in the workplace.
An above average IQ (which one would expect in a Tourism Management
graduate) and reasonably developed managerial competencies are precursors
to development of high EQ
(Higgs & Dulewicz, 1999)

PCA: 41 key items Associated with Success in
Hotel Management in Bulgaria
1. Cognitive/communication α=.928; var=15.6%
2. EI (Empathy; interpersonal relations; problem solving;

adaptability.; optimism; social responsibility) α=.905; var=13.5%
3. [Hospitality] business knowledge and experience α=.885; var=11.9%
4. Managerial interpersonal skills and competencies α=.859; var=7.3%
5. Hotel business success: tactical α=862;. var=7.2%
6. Hotel business success: strategic (EI Independence) α=.901; var=6.6%
7. Taking responsibility for self (EI Self regard) α=.789; var=4.8%
8. Survival skills (EI Stress tolerance; self control) α=. 52; var=3.4%
Total variance explained 70.3%
(Ineson, Rhoden and Alexieva, 2011)

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth
28 M. Ineson
Mappings
 Factor items mapped onto the themes from the
literature
 Further mapping of the Emotional Intelligence

dimensions (BarOn, 1997; Goleman, 1996; Mayer
& Salovey, 1997; Salovey & Mayer, 1990) onto
items within four of the factors pointed to the
pervasive role of EI in HM success

SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES: focus of learning
outcomes for HM postgrad. curriculum developers
Factor 1 Cognitive/communication:
Rule-consciousness/honesty/ trustworthiness; Logical thought
processes in speech and writing; Good observational skills/vigilance
Factor 2 ( EI: interpersonal relations: social responsibility):
Keeping people informed; Optimistic outlook, even when
difficulties arise; Service to clients and customers; Creation of an
environment of trust and fairness
Factor 3 [Hospitality] business knowledge and experience:
Confident in dealing with/ability to deal with emergencies; Ability
to deal with complaints/problems; Ability to train staff
Factor 5 Hotel business success - tactical:
Passion for cleanliness
Factor 8 Survival skills (EI: Stress tolerance; self-control):
Tough-mindedness; Realism/'feet on the ground‘
Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth30M. Ineson
Bulgarian Hospitality Graduate
Trainee Employability Profile
 Intrapersonal and interpersonal skills and
competencies, embracing elements of EI
 Empathy; interpersonal relations; adaptability;

optimism; social responsibility; independence; self
regard; stress tolerance; and self control
(Ineson, Rhoden and Alexieva, 2011; c.f. Salovey and Mayer, 1990;
Goleman, 1996; BarOn, 1997)
31
Competition
Think of an incident in the workplace when you were successful
because you used your EI, in particular you were persuasive and
empathetic
You have 10 mins to make some notes
If you wish to, you have five minutes maximum to tell the group about the
situation and to convince them that you were successful because you used
your EI
Following your talk, anyone may ask you questions to check the authenticity
The competition will close after 15 mins
There will be a prize for the most successful person!

Time for a
coffee!
7/18/2018 Elizabeth M. Ineson 33

EI in the Workplace Competition
Talk for five minutes maximum to tell the group about

the situation you have recorded
Convince them that you were successful because you

used your EI
Following your talk, anyone may ask you questions to

check the authenticity
There is a prize for the most successful person!

Practical Intelligence
 “an experience-based accumulation of skills and explicit knowledge as well
as the ability to apply that knowledge to solve every day problems ….In
other words, practical intelligence can be referred to as “know-how” or
common sense”
(Baum in Boutelle, 2017)
 ability to acquire knowledge through life experience, in the school of life

(informal, tacit knowledge);
 procedural nature (know-how), not conceptual, abstract or explanatory

(know-what);
 “hot” knowledge - very useful in achieving personal goals;
 “common sense,” intuition, business acumen
(Sternberg & Wagner, 1993; Sternberg, Wagner & Okagaki, 1993; Uchnast, 2006;
Wagner & Sternberg, 1985)

Teaching Tacit Knowledge
Practical Intelligence may be assessed through tacit

knowledge
1. What do you know about your strengths, weaknesses, values
and ambitions?
2. What are the strengths, weakness, values and ambitions of
others with whom you work?
3. How would you approach a similar job to yours differently in
the future?
4. Who are the most valued people in your organisation? Why?
(Smith, 2001)

Teaching Tacit Knowledge
 Selective encoding - select or filter relevant or needed information from
the environment. For example, use specific information in a client’s report.
 Selective combination - combine specific information together in ways
that are relevant; show how facts form a pattern or how the separate
parts make a complete whole.
 Selective comparison - see relationships between old and new facts or
separate out similarities and differences between past and present.
 Compare previously known information with new information or apply
existing knowledge in ways that create new knowledge.
Methods may be used individually or combined to help make sense of new

situations and re-evaluate old situations
(Wagner and Sternberg, 1987)
Training needed in how to use this newly acquired information to improve
their ability to acquire and apply tacit knowledge
Example Scenario for Assessing TK
 You are an executive vice-president in the marketing division of Global Travel, a company
that sells specialised holidays . You have been with Global Travel since finishing
university, having spent 14 years in a managerial role in human resources, and two years
in your present position.
 Global Travel has been losing market share steadily over the past five years. Its strength
in the past has been introducing new products before its competition, but now its
product line seems to be three steps behind the leaders in a rapidly changing market.
 A strategy of focusing on more stable segments of the market has been aborted because
of fierce competition from large overseas companies.
 You believe that your lack of knowledge about the latest products and technology limits
your effectiveness. Your schedule is very busy, but you think it is important to catch up
on, and keep up with, innovation that affects your industry.
 Rate the quality of the following strategies for becoming more knowledgeable on new
products and technology on a scale from:
1 (Extremely bad) – 4 (Neither good nor bad) - 7 Extremely good
(Modified from: Sternberg et al., 2000 p. 256).

Possible Strategies
Strategy Rating
1 Ask for leave of absence to pursue and advanced qualification
2 Scan newspapers for relevant T&T articles
3 Subscribe to several T&T journals
4 Subscribe to several consumer oriented T&T publications
5 Attend T&T trade shows
6 Ask to sit in company R&D meetings
7 Check competition on-line
8 Attend international T&T conferences
9 Hire new staff member to keep you up to date with current trends
10 Ask for monthly summary of company product developments
11 Organise weekly meetings of staff in R&D and operations depts.
12 Other ideas?

Example: Two-part Supervisor Rating Scale
of Occupational Performance
Performance evaluation statements
1. My relationship with this employee is good.
2. I think highly of this employee.
3. I am satisfied with this employee.
4. This employee's relationships with other co-workers are good.
The rating scale was as follows (1-9) where : 1 = definitely no, 5 = not
sure, 9 = definitely yes.
Supervisors rated employee work performance according to the three

dimensions of successful intelligence: analytic, creative (cf. emotional),
and practical (Sternberg, 1997). In addition, overall ratings of work
performance were requested.
(Cianciolo, Grigorenko, Jarvin, Guillermo Gil, Drebot & Sternberg, 2006).

Example: Performance Evaluation Statements
1. How would you rate this employee's common-sense ability (PI)?

2. How would you rate this employee's academic ability(AI)?
3. How would you rate this employee's creative ability(CI)?
4. How would you rate this employee at working by him/herself?
5. How would you rate this employee at working with others?
6. How good is this employee at motivating him/herself?
7. How good is this employee at managing tasks?
8. How responsible is this employee?
The rating scale was as follows (1-9) where : 1 = extremely bad, 5 = neither
bad nor good, 9 = extremely good.
(Cianciolo et al., 2006)

Assessing Practical Intelligence
 The tacit knowledge inventory for managers (TKIM)

e.g. The Best Report
 You and a co-worker are jointly responsible for

completing a report on a new project by the end of the
week. You are uneasy about this assignment because
the co-worker has a reputation for not meeting
deadlines. The problem does not appear to be lack of
effort. Rather, he seems to lack certain organisational
skills necessary to meet a deadline and is also quite a
perfectionist. As a result, too much time is wasted
coming up with the “perfect” idea, project, or report.
Exercise: The Best Report
Read the scenario and complete the table
You do not need to share your results

The Best Report
Item Score
1. Divide the work to be done in half and tell him that if he does not complete his part,
you obviously will have to let your immediate superior know it was not your fault.
2. Politely tell him to be less of a perfectionist.
3. Set deadlines for completing each part of the report, and accept what you have
accomplished at each deadline as the final version of that part of the report.
4. Ask your superior to check up on your progress on a daily basis (after explaining why).
5. Praise your co-worker verbally for completion of parts of the assignment.
6. Get angry with him at the first sign of getting behind schedule.
7. As soon as he begins to fall behind, take responsibility for doing the report yourself, if
need be, to meet the deadline.
8. Point out firmly, but politely, how he is holding up the report.
9. Avoid putting any pressure on him because it will just make him fall even more behind.
10. Offer to buy him dinner at the end of the week if you both meet the deadline.
11. Ignore his organisational problem so you don’t give attention to maladaptive
behaviour.
The Best Report:
Results for UK Service Sector Managers
Item Mean Score
1. Divide the work to be done in half and tell him that if he does not complete his part,
you obviously will have to let your immediate superior know it was not your fault.
2.6
2. Politely tell him to be less of a perfectionist. 3.7
5.7
4. Ask your superior to check up on your progress on a daily basis (after explaining why). 4.5
5. Praise your co-worker verbally for completion of parts of the assignment. 5.6
6. Get angry with him at the first sign of getting behind schedule. 1.5
7. As soon as he begins to fall behind, take responsibility for doing the report yourself, if
need be, to meet the deadline.
3.2
8. Point out firmly, but politely, how he is holding up the report. 5.5
9. Avoid putting any pressure on him because it will just make him fall even more behind. 2.4
10. Offer to buy him dinner at the end of the week if you both meet the deadline. 4.5
2.0
behaviour.
The Best Report: Ordered findings
Mean
Item Score
5.7
2. Praise your co-worker verbally for completion of parts of the assignment. 5.6
3. Point out firmly, but politely, how he is holding up the report. 5.5
4. Ask your superior to check up on your progress on a daily basis (after explaining
4.5
why).
5. Offer to buy him dinner at the end of the week if you both meet the deadline. 4.5
6. Politely tell him to be less of a perfectionist. 3.7
7. As soon as he begins to fall behind, take responsibility for doing the report
3.2
yourself, if need be, to meet the deadline.
8. Divide the work to be done in half and tell him that if he does not complete his
part, you obviously will have to let your immediate superior know it was not your 2.6
fault.
9. Avoid putting any pressure on him because it will just make him fall even more
2.4
behind.
2
behaviour.
11. Get angry with him at the first sign of getting behind schedule. 1.5
Loyalty
How would you measure loyalty in the
workplace?
 Length of service?
 ‘Presenteeism’?
 Willingness/enthusiasm for work?
 Unfailing support for Company/Organisation?

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 47 Elizabeth M. Ineson
Reasons for Loyalty to
Organisation (Hungarian employees n= 662;
Scale 1-5; mean; s.d.)
1. I enjoy meeting customers 4.09; 0.536

2. I enjoy good communications with my work-mates 4.06; 0.946
3. I get personal satisfaction from my job 3.98; 1.033
4. I respect my head of department 3.97; 1.032
5. I enjoy good communications with my managers 3.72; 1.085
6. I am proud of my Company 3.70; 1.020
 All intangible
(Ineson, Benke & László, 2013, cf. Ineson et al.,2000 and Ineson & Berechet, 2009)

Promoting Workplace Loyalty
PEOPLE are main focus of employee loyalty in hotels
 Maintain and develop supportive management skills,
implement policies that build up close employee affiliation at
all levels, strengthen employees’ identification with the
organisation and consider individuals
 Committed employees talk about ‘we’ and ‘us’ not ‘you’ and
’them’
 Devise, implement and maintain efficient and effective
internal communication systems, both up and down
throughout all levels
(Ineson, Benke & László, 2013)

Employee Recruitment
and Diversity Management
 Labour shortages in hotels in Europe; Diverse manpower

 Inconsistent antidiscrimination and employment legislation across
European countries
 Evidence of discrimination in recruitment
Methods
 Internal versus external channels
 Traditional versus contemporary
 Subjective judgments of recruiters?
 Discriminatory practices evident in the global hotel industry
 Challenging issue for managers
(The Open University, 2016)

2018/7/18 Elizabeth M. Ineson 50
Diversity Management (DM)
 Aims to tolerate, respect and treat fairly others of
diverse characteristics and from diverse backgrounds
 Supplements and complements antidiscrimination
and employment legislation
 Generates many pros and some cons
 Works closely with cultural, legal and social norms
 Needs time, money and management support to
implement
(Yap & Ineson, 2011)

Recruitment Visions of 315 European Hotel
Managers from 5 Countries (Bulgaria,
Lithuania, Romania, Switzerland, UK)
Which non-discriminatory job specific criteria in managerial
recruits are desired by EHM?
 Postgraduate degree in hospitality management

 At least 12 months of hotel work experience
 Leadership, administrative, technical and conceptual
competencies
 Communication and interpersonal skills
 Ease of mobility; with driving licence

Discriminatory Characteristics – which did
majority record as an asset/disadvantage?
 Aged above 50  Looking after children
 Aged 50 and below  Native/Non-native origin
 White/Non-white skin
 Childless/looking after colour
children  Sexual Orientation:
 Disability Straight; Gay; Bisexual
 Single
 Gender: M/F
 Co-habiting
 Good health

Discriminatory Characteristics (% age)
recorded as an asset/disadvantage?
 Healthy (96.1)  Disability (59.2)
 Aged 50 and below (71.3)  Aged above 50 (55.2)
 Native (58)  Non-native (35.7)
 White skin colour (32.8)  Non-white skin colour (27.5)
 Homosexual (26)  Heterosexual (27.4)
 Childless (14.3)  Gender: Female (7.5)
 Single (11.4)
 Co-habiting/married (10.1)
 Gender: Male (9.8) (Yap & Ineson, 2011)

Conclusions
 Shortage of qualified manpower to fuel the
growing hotel industry
 Hotels have to attract ethnic minorities and
immigrants
 EHM appear to be discriminating in favour of and
against diverse applicants
 Current antidiscrimination and employment
legislation is insufficient to ensure fair treatment
 DM can help to eliminate discriminatory
decisions
Practical Implications
EU Commission should endorse DM to unite

the disparity of antidiscrimination legislation
in member states
Hotel HRMs in Europe should establish

diversity philosophy and policy to promote
equality and fairness in the workplace

Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB)
 Person's voluntary commitment within an organisation or company that is not part
of his or her contractual tasks
 Not recognised directly by a formal reward system but yet promote effective
operation of an organisation
 OCB is a function of ability, motivation and opportunity
 Promotes satisfaction and, sometimes, organisational recognition
Is OCB related to national or organisational culture?
Yes say Turnipseed and Murkison (2000), in the context of USA and Romania et al. (and
in other countries - various studies)
Yes say Mohanty and Rath (2012) Organisational Culture is positively related to OCB
(and other studies)
Can the behaviour of managers promote OCB in their employees?

LS Lowry 1887-1976

The Lowry theatre and gallery complex opened in 2000

Volunteer Workforce
 ‘The Lowry runs a very successful volunteer programme with

nearly 300 volunteers assisting the Theatres’ Front of House
operations. All are welcome to apply but priority will be given to
those who live in the Salford area and/or aged between 18-25.
(in reality, who volunteers?)
 Given uniform, subsistence, travel expenses

and limited free F&F tickets for shows
Read more at http://www.thelowry.com/about-the-
lowry/jobs/volunteering/#5ZjDj7K7ijfHtdUB.99
Elizabeth M. Ineson 60 Wednesday, July 18, 2018

The Lowry Theatre and Art Gallery
 Aim: to provide information which can be used to increase employee and
volunteer (VIP: Very Important Person) satisfaction .
What attitudes and feelings lie behind employee and volunteer

satisfaction and commitment to The Lowry?
What key issues have been raised by employees and volunteers and
how might these issues be addressed
over the next 12 months?

Employee Commitment
Medium term view
Q8: Do you expect to be with The Lowry in two years time or do you expect
to have moved on?
100
80
60
% 43 45
40 39
40 36 35
27 29
23 23 24 25
20
8
2 1 3
0
Stay Move on Don't know Other
Employee 05 Employee '06
Employee '07 Most recent UK norm

Volunteer Commitment
Medium term view
Q7: Do you expect to be with The Lowry in two years time or do you expect
to have moved on?
100
85 87
80
67
60
% 43
40
24 26 25
20
12
8 8
3 3 4 4
0 1
0
Stay Move on Don't know Other
Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Volunteer '05 Elizabeth M. Ineson
Volunteer '06 63
Volunteer 07 Most recent UK norm

Summary of VIP Job Satisfaction, Motivation and
Loyalty data - Key Indicators (%)
VIP VIP VIP
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
Role satisfaction 95 96 99↑
Satisfaction with The Lowry as an organisation 88 85 97↑
Motivated 79 91 97↑
Lot of Loyalty to immediate line manager 50 50 58↑
Lot of Loyalty to [department] VIP team 55 61 59↑
Lot of Loyalty to The Lowry as a whole 58 67 73↑

The Culture of The Lowry (% agree)
Emp. Emp. Emp. VIP VIP VIP
2005 2006 2007 2005 2006 2007
I am proud to say that I work for
[am a VIP at] The Lowry
85 90 93 98 100 100
I feel that I can express my
63 79 79 68 69 82
opinions openly [at work]
Morale in my department
[amongst the VIPs] is good at 63 72 71 70 86 90
Present
Morale across the whole of The
Lowry appears to be good at 46 70 75 65 90 92
present
I feel valued in my work at The
56 67 71 74 86 87
Lowry
I feel that The Lowry is a creative
and innovative place in which to 84 79 83 96 92 95
work

Training (% agree)
All respondents 2004 2005 2006 2007
I receive the training necessary to carry out

79 85 63 (E) 75 (E)
my duties competently
I receive regular training to improve my 32 (E) 34(E)

knowledge and skills
51 55
[Annual training session useful] 91 (V) 84(V)

A Volunteer Legacy?
Can mega-event Ambassador volunteer programmes create a
sustainable tourism legacy?
In-depth interviews conducted (2012;2013) with managers of programmes associated

with London and 10 other regional venues that hosted London Olympic and
Paralympic Games events
Findings
Ambassador volunteers enhanced tourist experiences during the Games through the
Ambassadors’ pride in their home city, enthusiasm and local knowledge
Aspirations to create a sustainable legacy, in the form of a pool of experienced

volunteers to support future events and further tourist visits, severely constrained by
cuts in local government budgets
Government Olympic Executive provided coordinating role leading up to the Games
Neither they nor London Organising Committee for the Olympic Games provided
practical assistance for legacy development - a missed opportunity to channel the
enthusiasm of mega-event volunteers into further volunteering to promote tourism
(Nichols, Ralston and Holmes, 2017)
Work-Family Conflict
(Lövhöiden, Yap & Ineson, 2011)
Aim and focus
 To identify and analyse the linking mechanisms [work-family
conflicts (WFCs) and work-family enrichment (WFE)] between the
work and family roles of Norwegian hotel middle managers.
 WFCs: conflict related to time, strain or behaviour (Greenhaus &

Beutell, 1985); bi-directional conflicting nature of work and family
roles (Frone, Yardley & Markel, 1997).
 WFE: combines experience and resources in one role to enhance the

quality of life in the other role through the instrumental path and/or
the affective path (Carlson, Kacmar, Wayne & Grzywacz, 2006).

Work-Family Conflict
(Lövhöiden, Yap & Ineson, 2011)
 Managers experienced time-based, strain-based and behaviour-
based WFCs due to time constraints, demanding colleagues and
guests, and the nature of the hotel industry; leading to negative
work, family, psychological and physical health outcomes
 Both instrumental (technological and human resources) and

affective (activities, free trips and gifts) WFE were detected
 Flexible working time, minimum interruption at work, working from

home, reduction of working time, work shifts, individual office,
kindergarten/childcare centre provisions, nature of hotel job, and
family orientation were suggested WFCs

Talent Management
 involves the systematic identification of key

positions which make a difference to
organisational performance
 develop a talent pool of high potential employees
to fill those key positions
 develop appropriate HR practices and activities
that facilitate filling these positions with the best
people
(Collings and Mellahi, 2009).

Need for Talent Management (TM)
 Pre-2007, TM became a significant area of policy activities seen as part of
an employer’s branding efforts for future employees
(Das & Ahmed, 2014)
 competition between employers to find and develop ‘high-potential’
employees
 TM policies need to be set against the context of each organization’s
business priorities
(Tansley, Turner & Foster, 2007)
 In post-Brexit Britain, it is predicted that employers across different
employment sectors will face challenges to attract people with talent An
‘exclusive people’ approach rests on the assumption that key workers or
‘stars’ are necessary to the organisation’s competitive success
 It is predicated on the belief that strategically critical positions must first
be identified, after which people with the right skills and attributes are
then found to fill those positions
(Bratton & Gold, 2017)

Skills and Competencies
Do skills and competencies function
differently as talent-management tools?
 Both identify an ability that an individual has

acquired through training and experience
 It may be argued that concepts are not identical

in terms of their definitions or the function they
perform within the talent-management process

Skills and Competencies
 Skills define specific learned activities, range widely in terms of complexity
and are tangible, for example: setting a table; making a bed
 Knowing which skills a person possesses helps us determine whether their

training and experience has prepared them for a specific type of
workplace activity
 Skills give us the “what” - what type of abilities are required to perform a
specific activity or job?
How does an individual perform a job successfully?

How do they behave in the workplace environment to achieve the desired
result?
 Competencies translate skills into on-the-job behaviours that demonstrate

the ability to perform the job requirements competently; skills’
applications include using the skills alongside appropriate personality
traits, behaviours and attitudes
https://talentguard.com/whats-the-difference-between-skills-and-competencies/
Managing Talent
 Decision-making roles include those of resource allocator,
disturbance handler, negotiator and entrepreneur
 Interpersonal roles include figurehead, leader and liaison

between employees and senior managers
 Informational roles include monitor of information,

disseminator of information and spokesperson, which often
flow from the interpersonal roles
 Developmental roles include working with HR business

partners, workforce planning, coaching and mentoring,
fostering a learning climate, career planning and training
subordinates
(Bratton & Gold, 2017)
How to Manage Talent
Based on a round table discussion plus some interviews with 10 invited
managers (3 general; 3 HR; 1 deputy; 1 F&B; 1 area; 1 corporate sales)
representing 6 UK hotel chains, a franchised multi-national company, a
privately owned hotel and a conference centre, it was concluded that:
 Talent management has to be linked to business strategy, with

incentives and rewards for line managers
 More formal training in the concepts of emotional labour and

emotional intelligence should be provided for senior and line
managers
 Good communication skills and support from top management for

talent management is important
(Bratton and Watson, 2017)

Global Talent Management Effectiveness
 Competitive advantage
 Knowledge creation and sharing
 Diverse talent positioning
 Improving human resources’ impact
 Performance and innovation
 Employee engagement
(Yap, 2017)

Organisational Behaviour and Human Capital: Elizabeth M. Ineson Bed (Hons) MSC PHD Cert Ed. (Dist.) Fih Finsttt

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Organisational Behaviour

and Human Capital

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth M. Ineson 1

 Definitions and current issues

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth M. Ineson 2

 Interdisciplinary field - includes sociology,

 The skills, knowledge, and experience

 possessed by an individual or population (managers/staff)

 viewed in terms of their value or cost to the organisation

2. When and why do individuals conform in group situations?

3. Are cohesive groups better than diverse groups?

4. Is there one best leadership style?

5. Why are some individuals or groups in organisations more

6. How does organisational culture influence behaviour and

Form of behavioural analysis

Applies psychological principles of OB

Examines behaviour of individuals and groups

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth M. Ineson 6

 Reflection training develops acquisition of TK; enhances experiential learning

 Possibly enhances practical problem solving in real-world simulations

 Cognitive factors may have bearing on experiential learning

 Development of social cognitive learning theory-based methods and measures are

(Matthew and Sternberg, 2009)

Personal i.e. Cognitive, Environmental factors

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth M. Ineson 8

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth M. Ineson 9

‘the combined skills acquired during the course of training

(Baczyńska, 2015), based on a variety of previous definitions.

Training is important in the development of competencies

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth M. Ineson 10

Organisational Behaviour is associated with competencies

 Abilities that determine the efficient execution of work

To what extent are managerial competencies linked to

 Researchers have identified three main types of

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth M. Ineson 11

 Displayed in cognitive tests mainly through non-verbal tests and

See for example: https://www.cebglobal.com/shldirect/en/practice-

 Traditional view (e.g. Schmidt & Hunter, 1998; Spearman, 1927)

 They concluded that AI should be used in the job selection process

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth M. Ineson 12

 Ability to understand and control interpersonal emotions and

 Underpinned by belief that success depends only partly on

In the new millennium, well developed EI

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth M. Ineson 13

 Ability of individual to seek ideal fit between

Which type would you say is most predictive of

How are managers in your organisation

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth M. Ineson 15

 Saville and Holdsworth

Numerous disreputable companies distributing tests

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth M. Ineson 16

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth M. Ineson 17

 Use a scale of one to four, with four representing strong

 All scores will remain confidential unless you want to share

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth M. Ineson 18

 Self control: managing emotions;  Social skills: handling

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth M. Ineson 19

Self-control The ability to take responsibility for oneself 3=

Social skills Social skills 3=

Empathy? (Ineson, 1997)

Wednesday, July 18, 2018 Elizabeth M. Ineson 21

 Maximise student-centred (iii) Assessment