Chapter IV

SOIL
> the uncemented aggregate
of mineral grains and
decayed organic matter
(solid particles) with liquid
and gas in the empty space
between the solid particles
 the densification of soil by removal of air,
which requires mechanical energy
 the process in which a stress applied to a soil
causes densification as air is displaced from
the pores between the soil grains
 is a process that brings about an increase
in soil density or unit weight, accompanied
by a decrease in air volume
 an increase of the state of
compaction of a soil
 changes pore space size,
distribution and soil strength
 the result of heavy machinery
compressing the soil, but it can also
occur due to passage of animal feet
 measured in terms of its DRY UNIT WEIGHT
 depends on the water content and compactive
effort (weight of hammer, number of impacts,
weight of roller, number of passes)

DRY UNIT WEIGHT

- the unit weight of the soil when dry

 DURING COMPACTION…

SOIL
+ WATER
=
acts as a softening agent in
soil particles Soil particle water

The soil particles slip

over each other and
move into
a densely packed position
 AFTER
COMPACTION…
Moist unit weight, 𝛄

𝛄2
Soil solid The dry unit
NOTE:
weight first
At moisture
water content
increase =
as0,
the
the moist unit
moisture
weight (𝛄)
𝛄=𝛄1=𝛄𝑑(𝑤=0)

Soil solid content

=dry unit
increases.
weight (𝛄𝑑)
or

𝑤1 𝑤2 𝛄=𝛄(𝑑𝑤=0)=𝛄1
Moisture content, 𝑤
 When the
MOISTURE
CONTENT is
Moist unit weight, 𝛄

𝛄2
GRADUALLY
Soil solid
INCREASED
and the SAME
water COMPACTIVE
EFFORT IS
𝛄=𝛄1=𝛄𝑑(𝑤=0)

USED for
Soil solid
compaction,
the WEIGHT
OF THE SOIL
𝑤1 𝑤2
IN A UNIT
VOLUME
Moisture content, 𝑤 GRADUALLY
INCREASES.
 FOR EXAMPLE..
At
𝑤=𝑤1,
Moist unit weight, 𝛄

𝛄2
the moist unit
Soil solid
weight is equal to

water 𝛄=𝛄2
However, the
𝛄=𝛄1=𝛄𝑑(𝑤=0)

Soil solid dry unit weight

at this moisture
content is given
by
𝑤1 𝑤2

Moisture content, 𝑤 𝛄𝑑(𝑤=𝑤1)=𝛄𝑑(𝑤=0) |∆𝛄𝑑

 Beyond a certain
moisture content

𝑤=𝑤2
Moist unit weight, 𝛄

𝛄2
Soil solid
any INCREASE in
the MOISTURE
water CONTENT tends
to REDUCE the
𝛄=𝛄1=𝛄𝑑(𝑤=0)

DRY UNIT
Soil solid
WEIGHT.
This is because
the water takes
𝑤1 𝑤2 up the spaces
that would have
Moisture content, 𝑤 been occupied by
the soild
particles.
 The moisture
OPTIMUM content at
MOISTURE which the
CONTENT
maximum dry
Moist unit weight, 𝛄

𝛄2 unit weight is
Soil solid attained is
generally
water referred to as
OPTIMUM
MOISTURE
𝛄=𝛄1=𝛄𝑑(𝑤=0)

Soil solid CONTENT.

The laboratory test
generally used to
obtain the
maximum dry unit
𝑤1 𝑤2 weight of
compaction and the
Moisture content, 𝑤 optimum moisture
content is called the
PROCTOR
COMPACTION
TEST.
 PROCTOR COMPACTION TEST
(STANDARD PROCTOR TEST)

1. Compact the soil in a 2. Attach the mold on 3. Mix the soil with
mold which has a diameter a base plate at the varying amounts of
of 101.6mm and a volume bottom and to an water and then
of 943.4cm3. extension at the top. compact in three
equal layers by a
5. Calculate the 4. Calculate the moist unit hammer (weighs
dry unit weight 𝛄𝑑 weight of compaction for each 24.4N and has a
using the formula test using the formula, drop of 304.8mm)
that delivers 25
blows to each layer.
where W=weight of the compacted
soil in mold and V(m)=volume of the
mold (=943.3cm3)
where
w(%)=percentage of
moisture content
6. The values of 𝛄𝑑 can be plotted against
the corresponding moisture contents to
obtain the MAXIMUM DRY UNIT WEIGHT
and the OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT
for the soil.
For a given moisture
content, the theoretical
maximum dry unit weight
is obtained when there is
no air in the void spaces-
that is, when the degree of
saturation equals 100%.
Thus, the MAXIMUM
DRY UNIT WEIGHT at a
given moisture content
with zero air voids can be
given by
where
𝛄zav= zero-air void unit weight
𝛄𝑤 = unit weight of water
e = void ratio
Gs= specific gravity of soil solids
For 100% saturation, To obtain the variation
of 𝛄zav with moisture
content, use the
following procedure:
So, 1.Determine the specific
gravity of soil solids.
2.Know the unit weight
of water (𝛄𝑤).
3.Assume several values
of 𝑤, such as 5%, 10%,
15%, and so on.
where 4.Use
𝑤= moisture content
to calculate
𝛄zav for various values of
𝑤.
Since Newton is a derived unit, in several instances it is more convinient
to work with density (kg/m3) rather than unit weight. In that case,

can be
written as

can be
written as

can be
written as

where
ρ, ρ𝑑, ρzav =density, dry density and zero-air-void density, respectively
m= mass of compacted soil in the mold
ρ𝑤 = density of water (=1000kg/m3)
V(m)= volume of mold = 943.3 8⨉100-6 m3
 Additional information..
HAMMER
Extension

Diameter (101.6mm)

Molded soil Base plate

Relationship between soil moisture

and potential soil compaction.

MOLD
 FACTORS AFFECTING
COMPACTION

EFFECT OF EFFECT OF
SOIL TYPE COMPACTION
EFFORT
EFFECT OF SOIL TYPE
SOIL TYPE
• grain-size distribution, shape of soil
grains, specific gravity of soil solids and
amount and type of clay minerals present

• has a great influence on the maximum

dry unit weight and optimum moisture
content
In 1972…
Lee and Suedkamp studied compaction
curves for 35 different soil samples.

They observed four different types of

compaction curves.
4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMPACTION

1. CURVE TYPE A
- the ones that have a SINGLE PEAK

Generally, found in
soils that have a
liquid limit between
30 and 70.
 2. CURVE TYPE B 3. CURVE TYPE C
- a one and one-half - a double peak curve
peak curve

Type B and C can be found in soils that have a liquid limit less than about 30.
4. CURVE TYPE D
- ones that do not have a definite peak
- are termed odd-shaped

Soils with a liquid limit

greater than about 70 may
exhibit compaction curves
of type C or D.

Soils that produce C- and

D-type curves are not very
common.
EFFECT OF COMPACTION EFFORT
The compaction energy per unit volume, E, used for the standard
Proctor test discussed earlier can be given as

number height of

E=
( of blows)(
per layer
⨉
number
)(
of layers
⨉
weight of
hammer )(⨉ drop of
hammer
)
Volume of mold

(25)(3)(24.4N)(0.3048m)
E= = 591.3 ⨉ 103 N-m/m3 = 591.3kN-m/m3
943.3 ⨉ 10-6 m3
 If the compaction effort per unit volume of soil is changed, the moisture-unit
weight curve will also changed.
For example, the four compaction curves for a sandy clay.
The standard Proctor mold and hammer
19.9
were used to obtain the compaction
Sandy clay curves.
Liquid limit = 31 The number of layers of soil used for
Line of Plastic limit = 26
optimum
compaction was kept at three for all
19.0
cases.
50 However, the number of hammer blows
Dry unit weight, 𝛄𝑑 (kN/m3)

blows/
layer per each layer varied from 20 to 50.
The compaction energy used per unit
18.0
volume of soil for each curve can be
30 calculated easily using
blows/layer

25 blow/ layer
17.0 The values are:

Curve Number of Compaction

20 blows/ layer number blows/ layer energy (kN-m/m3)
1 20 473.0

16.0 2 25 591.3
15.2 3 30 709.6

4 50 1182.6
From the data table and the graph, we can reach two
conclusions:

1. As the compaction effort is increased, the

maximum dry unit weight of compaction is also
increased.

2. As the compaction effort is increased, the

optimum moisture content is decreased to some
extent.
The preceding statements are true for all soils.

Note:
The degree of compaction is not directly proportional
to the compaction effort.
With the development of heavy rollers and their use in field compaction, the
standard Proctor test was modified to better represent field conditions.
This is sometimes referred to as the

MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST

Because it increases the compactive effort,
the modified Proctor test results in an
increase of the maximum dry unit weight of
Compact thethe soil
soil. in
FIVE layers
Theby a
increase of the maximum dry unit
Use the same
hammer mold,
weight
that isas
weighs in
accompanied by a decrease of the
case of
44.5N theoptimum
standard
(mass=4.536kg) moisture content.
Proctor
andtest,
has with
a dropa volume
of
427mm. 3.
The number
of 943.3cmCalculate the compaction energy for unit
of blows for each layer
volume of soil using the formula
is kept at 25 as in the
case of the standard
Proctor test.
So,
(25)(5)(44.5⨉10-3)(0.4572)
E= =2696kN-m/m3
943.3⨉10-6
FIELD COMPACTION
Most compaction in the field is done with roller.

There are four common types of rollers:

1. SMOOTH- WHEEL ROLLER (or smooth-

drum roller)
2. PNEUMATIC RUBBER-TIRED ROLLER
3. SHEEPSFOOT ROLLER
4. VIBRATORY ROLLER
SMOOTH-WHEEL ROLLER
(or smooth-drum roller)

- suitable for proofrolling

subgrades and for the finishing
operation of fills with sandy and
clayey soils

- provide 100% coverage under

the wheels

- range of contact pressure

under the tires: 310-380kN/m2

- not suitable for producing

high unit weights of compaction
when used on thicker layers
PNEUMATIC RUBBER-TIRED ROLLER

-Heavily loaded wagon with

several rows of tires

-The tires are closely spaced-four

to six in a row

-Range of contact pressure under

the tires: 600 to 700 kN/m2

-Produce 70% to 80% coverage

-Can be used for sandy and

clayey soil compaction
SHEEPSFOOT ROLLERS
-are drums with a large
number of projections

-area of each projection may

range from 25 to 85 cm2

-most effective in
compacting clayey soils

-range of contact pressure

under the tires: 1380 to
6900kN/m2

-During compaction in the

field, the initial passes
compact the lower portion of
a lift. The top and middle
portions of a lift are
compacted at a later stage.
VIBRATORY ROLLERS
-very efficient in compacting granular
soils

-Vibrators can be attached to smooth-

wheel, pneumatic rubber-tired or
sheepsfoot rollers to provide vibratory
effects to the soil.

-The vibration is produced by rotating

off-center weights.
In most specifications for earth work, one stipulation is that the contractor
must achieve a compacted field dry unit weight of 90% to 95% of the
maximum dry unit weight determined in the laboratory by either the standard
SPECIFICATION FOR FIELD
or modified Proctor test.
This specification is, in fact, for RELATIVE COMPACTION, R, which can be
expressed as COMPACTION
 SPECIFICATION FOR FIELD
COMPACTION
In the compaction of granular soils, specifications are sometimes written in
terms of the required relative density Dr or compaction.
We can write

NOTE:
Relative density should not be confused with relative
compacton.
COMPARE

We can see that

where

Based on the observation of 47 soil samples, Lee and Singh gave a

correlation between R and Dr for granular soils:
3 standard procedures for determining the field
DETERMINATION
unit OF FIELD UNIT
weight of compaction
WEIGHT AFTER COMPACTION
1. Sand cone method

2. Rubber balloon method

3. Nuclear method

When the compaction work is progressing in the field, it

is useful to know whether or not the unit weight
specified id achieved.
SAND CONE METHOD

Metal
The sand cone cone
device consists of
a glass or plastic
jar
jar
with a metal cone
attached at its top.
 STEPS IN CONDUCTING SAND CONE METHOD

Fill the jar with very

uniform dry Ottawa
Excavate a small jar
Determine the weight of
hole in the area the moist soil excavated
sand.
from the soil (W2) and
Ottawa
Label the weight of the
NOTE: where the soil has the moisture content of
sand
jar, cone and the sand
been compacted. the excavated soil.
The values of Wc and 𝛄𝑑(sand) are
filling the jar as W1.
Compute the dry
weight determined
of the soil (W3) from the
Place the calibration
cone with done
Allow the sand to
using in the laboratory.the sand-filled jar to flow out of the jar
valve
its inverted position into the hole and
cone
where into the hole. metal
the cone.
w= moisture content. plate
Once the hole and cone are Compute the volume of Determine the unit
filled, the weight of the jar Hole filled
the hole excavated using weight of compaction,
the cone, and the remaining with Ottawa
sand in the jar is determined sand
Where
(W4), so
Wc= weight of sand to fill the
Where
cone only
W5= weight of sand to fill the
𝛄𝑑(sand)=dry unit weight of
hole and cone
Ottawa sand used
RUBBER BALLOON
METHOD
The procedure for the rubber balloon method is similar to that
for the sand cone method.
 a test hole is made
 the moist weight of the soil remove from the hole and
it’s moisture content are determined
However, the volume of the hole is determined by introducing
a rubber balloon filled with water from a CALIBRATED
VESSEL
into the hole, from which the volume can be read directly.

The dry unit weight of the compacted soil can be

determined using
NUCLEAR METHOD
NUCLEAR DENSITY METERS
 used often to determine the compacted dry
unit weight of soil

operate either in drilled holes or from the

ground surface

measures the weight of wet soil per unit

volume and also the weight of water present in a
unit volume of soil

dry unit weight of

compacted soil =
moist
unit weight - weight
of water
Sample Problem No. 1
Calculate the zero-air-void unit weights (in kN/m3) for a
soil with Gs=2.68 at moisture contents of 5, 10, 15, 20 and
25%. Plot a graph of 𝛄zav against moisture content.
SOLUTION: Substituting all the values of w, we have
w (%) 𝛄zav= (kN/m3)
5 23.18
10 20.73
𝛄zav= 9.81kN/m3; 15 18.75
Gs= 2.68
20 17.12
For w= 5% 25 15.72
24
22
𝛄zav= kN/m3
20
18
16
𝛄zav= 23.18 kN/m3
14
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Moisture content (%)
Sample Problem No. 2
For a compacted soil, the specific gravity of soil solids is 2.72
and the moisture content is 18%. The unit dry weight is 0.9 of
its zero-air-void unit weight. Compute for the unit dry weight.
Solution:

Hence, for the compacted soil,

𝛄𝑑= 0.9 𝛄zav

𝛄𝑑= 0.9 (113.9)

𝛄𝑑= 102.51lb/ft3
𝛄zav= 113.9 lb/ft3
Sample Problem No. 3
A cohesive soil sample was taken from an STP and returned to the laboratory
in a glass jar. It was found to weigh 140.5 grams. The sample was then placed
in a container of V= 500 cm3 and 423 cm3 of water were added to fill the
container. From these data, what was the unit weight of the soil in kN/m3 and
pcf.

Solution:
Notice that the 140.5 grams is a mass. Therefore, the ratio of mass to
volume is a density 𝞺,
Sample Problem No. 4
The moist unit weight of a soil is 16.5 kN/m3.
Given that the w= 15% and Gs= 2.70, find
(1) Dry unit weight
(2) The porosity

Solution:
(1)

(2)
 Sample Problem No. 5
A saturated soil sample has a unit weight of 122.5 pcf and Gs= 2.70.
Find the 𝛄dry and e.

Solution:

Eq. 1

Eq. 2

Combining eq.1 and 2, we have