Engineering Metrology &

Its Applications
Precision measurement not only involves dimensional
measurements but also measurements of form and other
geometrically related errors.
Metrology is the science of pure measurements. In
metrology we are primarly concerned with methods of
measurements, based on agreed units and standards.
Metrology deals with
Measurement
Measuring instruments
Measuring Techniques
Measurement Process
Maintenance of Instruments
Need of Inspection in Industry
The needs for inspection are
To ensure that part of the component or components
conforms to the established standards.
To meet interchangeability of manufacture.
To maintain the quality of the material.
To maintain the customer relation.
To reduce wastage of raw material.
To purchase good quality raw materials, parts and
tools, from different factories.
To take decision of defective parts.
Basic terminologies used in measurement are
Repeatability or Precision
Precision is nothing but the repeatability of the process. It is defined as the
relationship of observed readings with the average value.

Reproducibility
It is the ability of measuring system to repeat the readings when the same
object is measured consecutively under the same conditions but by a different
operator.

Accuracy
Accuracy is defined as the relationship between the values of the observed and
true value.
A. Both Accurate and precise
B. Precise but not Accurate
C. Neither Precise nor Accurate

Accuracy may designate precision but the precision never designates accuracy.
  Systems of Measurements

 Measurement systems are classified according to

1. Method : a) Direct b) Indirect

2. Axis : a) Linear b) Angular

3. Standard : a) Line standard b) End standard 

 Direct Measurement
 It means that dimension of the work piece has to be
compared directly with the measuring instrument being
used.
E.g. Vernier caliper, Micrometer.

 Indirect Measurement
  It
means the dimension of the work piece has to be taken
with a further device of comparison
E.g. Divider, Telescopic Gauge.
 Linear Measurement
If the measurement is done in straight axis, then the
measurement can be called as linear measurement.
E.g. Measuring with Vernier caliper or Micrometer.

 Angular Measurement
If the measurement is done in angular axis, then the
measurement can be called as angular measurement.
E.g. Measuring with combination set, Sine bar, Vernier Bevel
protractor.
Quality Definitions
Fitness for Use -Juran
Fitness for Purpose - BIS
Conformance to Requirement - Phil Crosby
Meeting Customer’s Requirement – Deming
Loss to Society – Taguchi
Degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfill
requirements - ISO 9000-2000
Difference between INSPECTION and QUALITY
CONTROL
Inspection means checking of materials, products or
components or service and comparing the results with
specified requirements.

In Inspection quality of past production is ascertained,

and in quality control the quality of future production
is regulated.
Quality Assurance

The maintenance of a desired level of quality in a

service or product, especially by means of attention to
every stage of the process of delivery or production.

Quality management focused on providing

confidence that quality requirements will be fulfilled.
Linear Measuring Instruments
 

Linear measurement applies to measurement of lengths,

diameters, heights and thickness including external
and internal measurements.
Steel rule

Steel rule is one of the most useful tools in the shop for
taking linear measurements of blanks and articles to an
accuracy of 0.5 to 1 mm.
Steel rules are made 150, 300, 500 and 1000 mm long.
Steel tape
Steel tapes are made from non-rusting spring steel.
Graduations are imprinted or engraved usually on both
sides . These are made 1 to 50 m in length
Vernier Caliper
It is used for measuring internal and external measurements
and also depth.
It is made of stainless steel and hardened throughout.
Its range varies from 150mm to 1m in step of 150mm.
Commonly used metric verniers are 0.1, 0.05, and 0.02mm of
LC
Usually a vernier caliper is constructed to read both mm and
inches.
A fine adjustment mechanism is provided on some vernier
calipers for the accurate setting of the sliding jaw.
Different types of Vernier available in market are
 Analog Vernier caliper
 Digital Vernier caliper
 Dial Vernier caliper.
 Gear tooth Vernier
 Depth Vernier
 Vernier height gauge

Least Count
The least count is defined as the least possible measurement
that can made by the instrument.
                LC =     The smallest division on main scale

                   Total no of divisions on Vernier scale 
Analog Vernier caliper

 Digital Vernier caliper

 Measuring depth using Vernier caliper

Vernier Caliper With Dial

Vernier Height Gauge
Vernier depth gauge
Micrometer
It is used to measure external dimensions like diameter of
shaft , thickness of parts etc.
An accuracy or Least Count of micrometer is up to
0.001mm.
The essential parts of the instrument are frame , anvil ,
spindle, barrel or graduated sleeve , thimble , ratchet stop,
spindle clamp.
Micrometer is fitted with a ratchet stop mechanism
Method of reading
Barrel reading            =12.500
Thimble reading [23x 0.01] = 0.230
Vernier reading [7x0.001] = 0.007
Total reading =12.737
Limits Fits and Tolerance
Limits: Maximum and minimum permissible sizes within
which the actual size of a component lies.

Fits: Its is an assembly condition between ‘Hole’ & ‘ Shaft’

Tolerance:It is impossible to produce a component to an

absolute dimensional accuracy. Therefore depending upon
the functional requirements of a work some allowance is
permitted on it, this allowance is called tolerance.
Limits Fits and Tolerance Terminology:

Tolerance zone: In a graphical representation of tolerance,

the zone bounded by two limits of size of the part and defined
by its magnitude and by its position in relation to zero line.
 
Fundamental deviation: One of the two deviations which is
conveniently chosen to define the position of tolerance zone in
relation to zero line.

Nominal size: The nominal size of a dimension is the size

specified in the drawing. It is usually given in the drawing as
rounded off whole millimeters.

Basic size: The basic size of dimension is the size in relation to

which all limits of variations are determined.
Limits of size and Tolerance
Fit :
The relationship existing between two parts, shaft and hole,
which are to be assembled with respect to their difference in
the sizes before assembly is called fit.

A fit is represented by
 30 H 7 / g6,  40 H7/h6,
 40 H7js6,  40 H7p6,
 Types of fit :
Depending upon the actual limit of the hole or shaft the fit in
Indian Standard shall be divided in to three main classes,
 
1: Clearance fit The fit which always provides the clearance
is called clearance fit. Here, the tolerance zone of the hole is
entirely above that of shaft.
 Types of fit :
 
2: Interference fit The fit which always provides an
interference is called interference fit. Here, the tolerance zone
of the hole is entirely below that of shaft.
shaft overlaps.
 Types of fit :
 
3: Transition fit The fit which provides either a clearance or
an interference. Here the tolerance zone of the hole and shaft
overlaps.
Schematic representation of the positions of fundamental deviations
Schematic representation of the positions of fundamental deviations
Hole basis system, Shaft basis system

FOREMEN TRAINING INSTITUTE

Range In A Given Tolerance Grade
Gauges
• Gauges are inspection tools of rigid design, without
a scale.
• Serve to check the dimensions of manufactured
parts within certain specified limits.
• Plain gauges are used for checking plain holes and
shafts.
• Gauges do not indicate actual value of inspected
dimension on the work.
Go and Not Go limit :

• Go limit refers to upper limit of shaft and lower limit of

hole. It corresponds to maximum material condition.

• Not Go limit refers to lower limit of shaft and upperlimit

of hole. It corresponds to minimum material condition.
Plug gauges
• Plug gauges are used for checking the size of holes.
These
are made for straight cylindrical holes, taper holes and
threaded holes.

• The Go End which must enter thehole is made to the lower

limit and the No Go End which must not enter the hole is
made to the upper limit.

• Usually the Go End is made longer than the No Go End

• In a progressive limit plug gauge the Go and No Go members
are on the same end.
Plug gauge
Fixed Gages

Plug gage for holes with GO and NOT Plug gage with GO and NOT GO
GO on opposite ends. on one end.

Plain ring gages for gaging round rods. Snap gage with adjustable anvils.
Note the difference in knurled surfaces
to identify the two gages.
 A go/no-go plug gage purchased to check a particular hole
size. Note that the go member is longer than the no-go
member.

A single-end progressive-type go/no-go plug gage can more

quickly check hole sizes.
 Plain Ring Gauges
• Ring gauges are used for checking the size of shaft.
• These are available in two designs i.e. GO and NO GO.
Snap gauges
Snap gauges are used for checking the size of shafts. These may be
double ended, progressive or adjustable.

Fixed Snap gauge Adjustable Snap gauge Thread Snap gauge

 Taper gauge
• Taper gauges are made in both plug and ring type.
• For the accurate checking of taper, a thin coat of Prussian blue
is applied on the gauge and after inserting in to the job, gauge
is rotated slightly. If the paint is rubbed off evenly it indicates
that the taper angle is correct.

(A) Prussian blue is (B) The taper plug gage (C) The even transfer of
applied to the part to be is then inserted in the Prussian blue to the
checked. hole and twisted. gage indicates a proper
fit and accurate taper.
Depth gauge
These are used to check the depth of blind holes.
Thread gauge
For checking internal thread, thread plug gauges are used while
for checking external thread, thread ring gauges are used.
Radius gauge
• Radius gauges are used to check external and internal radius.
• Consists of sets of blades, each of which is stamped with the
corresponding radius.
• On one side we have external radius and on the other side
internal radius.
Feeler gauge
• Feeler gauge is also called thickness gauge. It consists a
number of blades of thin flexible steel strips which are ground
to thickness ranging from 0.03 to 1mm.
• Used to check clearance between two surfaces.
• More than one blade can be used together but minimum
number of blades should be used to reduce the possibility of
error.
 Screw pitch gauge
• The screw pitch gauge is used to select the required screw
and for checking the pitch of screw threads.
• This consists of a number of flat blades which are cut out to a
given pitch and held in a holder. Each blade is marked with
the pitch or the number of threads per inch.
• Sets are made for metric threads with an angle of 60 degree
and for British threads with an angle of 55 degree.
Material for gauge
The best material for gauges should fulfill most of the
following requirements.
• Hardness to resist wear.
• Low coefficient of thermal expansion to avoid temperature
effect.
• Corrosion resistance.
• Machinability for obtaining the required accuracy.
The various materials commonly used are :
High Carbon Steel
Case Hardening Steel
Cast Steel
Invar
Elinvar
Measurement of Angle
Angle is defined as the opening between two lines which meet
at a point.

Universal bevel protractor

This is an instrument used for measuring and testing angles.
Angles can be measured to an accuracy of 5'.
 Sine Bar
In the figure, Sin  = h/l
Where
h = height of the slip gauges
used
L = length of sine bar
 = angle set

Sine Center
This is a very useful device for testing the conical work
centered at each end. The principle of setting is same as that
of sine bar.
Dial indicator
• This is a precision instrument used for measuring errors or
deviations on surfaces.
• It can also be used to check the ovality of cylindrical parts,
align machine tools and set work parallel to the machine
bed movement.
• While using, a dial indicator can either be fixed on a fixture
or a magnetic base.
Plunger Type Dial Indicator
Bore gauge

It is used to measure diameter, roundness, and taper of holes.

It consists of a dial indicator fixed at the end of a tube, fixed measuring tip, and
movable measuring tip.
Screw Threads
• Screw Threads generally two Functions.
* Transmission Power and motion
* Act as fastener
Thread Terminology
Different type of screw Thread
Thread Plug Gauge
Three-Wire Measuring
• Three wires of equal diameter placed in thread, two
on one side and one on other side
• Standard micrometer used to measure distance over
wires (M)
• Different sizes and pitches of threads require different
sizes of wires
Selection of wires
In checking the effective diameter by using measuring
wires, it is always preferable that the cylinders make
contact at the pitch line or mid slope of the thread.
The diameter of the wire can be calculated from the
formula
G= 0.5 p sec (Thread angle) - for symmetrical thread
Basic measurement over wires
Pitch Diameter Calculation
Screw Thread Micrometer
• The thread Micrometer resembles the ordinary
micrometer, but has special contacts to suit the end screw
thread form that is to be checked.
• The v-anvil to be selected according to the thread type and
size.
Optical Comparator ( Profile Projector)
• Major diameter.
• Minor diameter.
• Depth of the thread.
• Included angle of the thread.
• Pitch of the thread.
Surface Roughness Measurement
Surface roughness is concerned both with the size and
the shape of the irregularities
Maximum Peak to Valley Height of Roughness (Ra)

It is also called Centre Line Average (CLA)

It is calculated as the Average of a surfaces measured
microscopic peaks and valleys.
Neutralizes the few outlying points so that the
extreme points have no significant impact on the final
results
Root Mean Square (RRMS)
RMS is calculated as the Root Mean Square of a
surfaces measured microscopic peaks and valleys
Root Mean Square (Rz)
Rz is calculated by measuring the vertical distance
from the highest peak to the lowest valley within five
sampling lengths, then averaging these distances
Rz averages only the five highest peaks and the five
deepest valleys—therefore extremes have a much
greater influence on the final value.
Equivalent Roughness Grade Symbols
Surface Symbols
Direction of Lays
Calibration
• It is the comparison of two measurement devices or systems. One
of known uncertainty and the other of unknown uncertainty and
to estimate the correct value of the unknown uncertainty.
• The one with known uncertainty is called the standard
• Accuracy of master instrument should be 4-10% higher of the
instrument to be calibrated

Traceability
• Calibrating instruments must be traceable with National
and International Standards.
Traceability Pyramid
Benefits of Calibration
• It fulfils the requirements of traceability to national /
international standards like ISO 9000.
• As a proof that the instrument is working.
• Confidence in using the instruments.
• Traceability to national measurement standard.
• Interchangeability.
• Reduced rejection, failure rate thus higher return.
• Improved product and service quality leading to satisfied
customers.
• Power saving.
• Cost Saving.
• Safety.
Statistical Process Control (SPC)
• Statistical Process Control is an industry-standard
methodology for measuring and controlling quality during
the manufacturing process.
• Quality data in the form of Product or Process
measurements are obtained in real-time during
manufacturing.

The application of SPC involves three main phases of activity:

 Understanding the process and the specification limits.
 Eliminating assignable (special) sources of variation, so that the
process is stable.
 Monitoring the ongoing production process, assisted by the use of
control charts, to detect significant changes of mean or variation
Classes of source of variation
1) Common Causes –
• Sometimes referred to as non assignable sources of
variation.
• It refers to many sources of variation that consistently acts
on process. These types of causes produce a stable and
repeatable distribution over time.

2) Special Causes –
• Sometimes referred to as assignable sources of variation.
• It refers to any factor causing variation that affects only
some of the process output. They are often intermittent
and unpredictable.
7- Quality Control Tools
1. Cause-and-effect diagram: Identifies many possible
causes for an effect or problem and sorts ideas into useful
categories.
7- QC Tools
2. Pareto chart: Shows on a bar graph which factors are
more significant.
7- QC Tools
3. Histogram: The most commonly used graph for showing
frequency distributions, or how often each different value
in a set of data occurs.
7- QC Tools
4. Check sheet: A structured, prepared form for collecting
and analyzing data; a generic tool that can be adapted for a
wide variety of purposes.
7- QC Tools
5. Control charts: Graphs used to study how a process
changes over time.

Limits of Control Chart

where A2 is a control chart constant that depends on subgroup size

7- QC Tools
6. Scatter diagram: Graphs pairs of numerical data, one
variable on each axis, to look for a relationship.
7- QC Tools
7. Stratification: A technique that separates data gathered
from a variety of sources so that patterns can be seen (some
lists replace “stratification” with “flowchart” or “run chart”).
Thank You