Chapter 15

Surveys

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Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is a study of status and is widely used in education and

the behavioral sciences. Its value is based on the premise that problems can
be solved and practices improved through objective and thorough
description. The most common descriptive research method is the survey.

Survey -Technique of descriptive research that seeks to determine present

practices or opinions of a specified population; can take the form of a
questionnaire, interview, or normative survey.

Questionnaire - Type of paper-and-pencil or electronic survey used in

descriptive research in which information is obtained by asking participants
to respond to questions rather than by observing their behavior.

Interview - Survey technique similar to the questionnaire except that

participants are questioned and respond orally rather than in writing.

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The Questionnaire
The investigator must have a clear understanding of what information is
needed and how each item will be analyzed.

The analysis is determined in the planning phase of the study, not after the
data have been gathered. The researcher must decide on the specific
purposes of the questionnaire:

• What information is wanted?

• How will the responses be analyzed?

• Will they be described by merely listing the percentages of participants

who responded in certain ways, or will the responses of one group be
compared with those of another?

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The Questionnaire
Delimiting The Sample

• Most researchers who use questionnaires have in mind a specific

population to be sampled. Obviously, the participants selected must be the
ones who have the answers to the questions.

• Samples sources need to be of adequate size. (there must be enough

people targeted by the survey to actually survey)

• The representativeness of the sample is an important consideration.

• Stratified random sampling, as discussed in chapter 6, is sometimes used.

• The selection of the sample should be based on the variables specified to

be studied. This affects the generalizability of the results. The
representativeness of the sample is more important than its size.

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The Questionnaire
Sample Size

The size of the sample needed is an important consideration from two

standpoints:

(1) for adequately representing a population and,

(2) for practical considerations of time and cost.

Constructing The Questionnaire

• One of the most valuable guidelines for writing questions is to ask

yourself continually what specific objective each question is measuring.
• Also, ask how you are going to analyze the response.
• Prepare a blank table that includes the categories of responses,
comparisons, and other breakdowns of data analysis so that you can
readily determine exactly how each item will be handled and how each
will contribute to the objectives of the study.
• You must select the format for the questions – Open or closed ended
questions.
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The Questionnaire
Open-ended question - Category of question in questionnaires and
interviews that allows the respondent considerable latitude to express
feelings and to expand on ideas. Open-ended questions may be used to
develop closed-ended questions.

Disadvantages –
• individuals may not like open-ended questions.
• Individuals may feel that open-ended questions are time
consuming
• Individuals may ramble and strays from the question and such
responses are difficult to synthesize and to group into categories
for interpretation.

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The Questionnaire
Closed question - Category of question found in questionnaires or
interviews that requires a specific response and that often takes the form of
rankings, scaled items, or categorical responses.

Ranking - Type of closed question that forces the respondent to place

responses in a rank order according to some criterion.

Example: Rank the following activities with regard to how you like to
spend leisure time. Use numbers 1 through 5, with 1 being the most
preferred and 5 the least preferred.

___ Reading
___ Watching television
___ Arts and crafts
___ Vigorous sports such as tennis and racquetball
___ Mild exercise activity such as walking

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The Questionnaire

Scaled items - Type of closed question that requires participants to

indicate the strength of their agreement or disagreement with some
statement or the relative frequency of some behavior. (see example, p. 276)

Categorical response - Type of closed question that offers the participant

only two responses, such as “yes” or “no”, “agree” or “disagree”.
Categorical responses do not require as much time to administer as scaled
responses do but do not provide as much information about the
respondent’s degree of agreement or frequency of the specified behavior.

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General Rules for Designing Questionnaires
♦ The items must be clearly worded so that the items have the same
meaning for all respondents. Avoid words that have no precise meaning,
such as “usually,” “most,” and “generally.”

♦ Use short questions rather than long questions because short

questions are easier to understand.

♦ Do not use items that have two or more separate ideas in the same
question

♦ Avoid using negative items. Negative items are often confusing, and
the negative word is sometimes overlooked, causing the respondent to
answer in exactly the opposite way intended.

♦ Avoid technical language and jargon. Attempt to achieve clarity and the
same meaning for everyone.

♦ Be careful that you do not bias the answer or lead the respondent to
answer in a certain way.

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Appearance and Design
Questionnaires should be well organized and appear easy to complete
( Many people have negative attitudes toward questionnaires, so anything that the
researcher can do to overcome this negative attitude enhances the likelihood that the
questionnaire will be answered.)

Questionnaires should provide the name and address of the investigator.

The instructions for answering the questions must be clear and complete,
and examples should be provided for any items that are expected to be
difficult to understand.

The first few questions should be easy to answer; the respondent is more
likely to start answering easy questions and is more apt to complete the
questionnaire after committing to the questionnaire. Generally, shorter
questionnaires have higher response rates and more validity than longer
ones. (The issue is not more data, but better data)

Range type questions may be easier to answer - the respondent can often
answer range-type questions without having to consult the records or at
least can supply the answers more quickly
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Piloting the Questionnaire
There should really be two pilot studies before implementing the
questionnaire:

1) The first trial run consists simply of asking a few colleagues or

acquaintances to read over the questionnaire. These people can
provide valuable critiques about the questionnaire format, content,
expression and importance of items, and the feasibility of adding or
deleting questions.

2) After revising the questionnaire in accordance with the criticisms

obtained in the first trial run, respondents who are a part of the
intended population are selected for the second pilot study. The
questionnaire is administered, and the results are subjected to item
analysis.

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Evaluating responses from Pilot Data
1) Questions that are answered the same way by all respondents need
to be evaluated; they probably lack discrimination.
2) Unexpected responses may indicate that the questions are poorly
worded.
3) Some rewording and other changes might also be necessary if the
participants, who might be sensitive to some questions, do not
respond to them.
4) The pilot studies also determines whether the instructions are
adequate. Another value of the pilot study relates to determining the
length of the survey. The researcher should record how long it takes
the average participant to complete the survey.
5) A trial run of the analysis of results should always be accomplished in
the pilot study. The researcher can see whether the items can be
analyzed in a meaningful way and then ascertain whether some
changes are warranted for easier analysis.

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Writing the Cover Letter (examples provided on pg. 280-81)
Cover letter - The letter attached to a survey that explains the
purposes and importance of the survey.

The cover letter should explain the purposes and importance of the
survey in a succinct and professional manner.

The respondent will likely become interested in the problem and will
be inclined to cooperate if they understand the purpose and
importance of the study.

Important Components of the Cover Letter

• Assure respondents that their privacy and anonymity will be

maintained.
• The cover letter should make an appeal for the respondent’s
cooperation.
• The respondents name and address should appear on the cover
letter.
• The cover letter should look as if it was individually typed, even when
a word processor is used.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Writing the Cover Letter (examples provided on pg. 280-81)
Important Components of the Cover Letter (cont)

• If the survey is endorsed by recognized agencies, associations, or

institutions, specify this in the cover letter. If possible, use the
organization’s or institution’s stationery.
• Acknowledge whether financial support is being given and by whom.
• Identify yourself by name and position. If the study is part of your
thesis or dissertation, give your advisor’s name.
• The cover letter should request that the questionnaire be returned
by a certain date.
• Grammatical errors, misspelled words, and improper spacing and
format give the respondent the impression that the author does not
attach much importance to details and that the study will probably be
poorly done.

(To increase the response rate, contact individuals by e-mail, letter, card, or
telephone, asking for their participation in the survey. )

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Sending The Questionnaire
The investigator needs to take care in choosing the time for the initial
mailing. Such considerations include holidays, vacations, and especially
busy times of the year for the respondents.

A self-addressed, stamped envelope should be included.

Again, the respondent should be given a due date for the return.

Follow Up (see example of follow up letter, p. 282)

Wait about 10 days after the initial mailing and then send a card to all
persons in the sample, stressing the importance of their participation
(and apologizing if they have already returned the questionnaires).

Approximately 10 days after the card, another letter with another copy
of the questionnaire and another self-addressed, stamped envelope
should be sent to those who have not responded.

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Normative Surveys

This method involves establishing norms for abilities,

performances, beliefs, and attitudes.

A cross-sectional approach is used: Samples of people of

different ages, sexes, and other classifications are selected and
measured.

The steps in the normative survey are generally the same as in

the questionnaire, the difference being the manner in which the
data are collected. Rather than asking questions, the researcher
selects the most appropriate tests to measure the desired
performances or abilities.

The researcher collects and analyzes the data from the survey
by some norming method, such as percentiles, T scores, or
stanines, and then constructs norms for the different categories
of age, sex, etc.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Normative Surveys

Sometimes comparisons are made between the norms of different

populations. In other studies, the major purpose is simply to establish
norms.

The primary drawbacks of any normative survey occur in test selection

and the standardization of testing procedures.

END OF PRESENTATION

Research Methods in Physical Activity