Introduction to

nonlinear
mechanics
Part II

Susana Moreira
smoreira@pucp.edu.pe

Nicola Tarque
sntarque@pucp.edu.pe

Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú

Av. Universitaria 1801, San Miguel
Lima 32, Perú
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Sources of nonlinearity
Displacement External forces

Kinematic Geometrical Equilibrium

equations nonlinearities equations

Deformation Constitutive Internal forces

equations

Material (adapted from M. Jirásek &

nonlinearities P. B. Lourenço, 2010)
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

General concepts
 Constitutive law ↔ Behavior model
 Important concepts:
Isotropic Orthotropic Elastic
material material deformation

Plastic Ductile Brittle

deformation material material

Yield
Hardening
strength
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Historic context
 The classical theory of plasticity grew out of the study of
metals in the late nineteenth century;
 Plasticity theory began with Tresca in 1864, when he
undertook an experimental program into the extrusion of
metals;
 Saint-Venant, Levy, Von Mises, Hencky and Prandtl made
advances in yield criteria and plastic flow rules the
following years;
 The advent of the classical theory occurred with Prager,
Hill, Drucker and Koiter amongst others, in the 1940s;
 The arrival of powerful computers in the 1980s and 1990s
brought with it the need to consider many numerical and
computational aspects to the plasticity problem.
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Force-displacement curve
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Experimental observation
 Tensile test of metallic components

(Lubliner, 2005) (Lubliner, 2005)

Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Experimental observation
 Tensile and compression test of concrete

(Lubliner, 2005) (Lubliner, 2005)

Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Bauschinger effect
 A specimen of a ductile
material that has been
subjected to increasing tensile
stress and then unloaded is
different from a virgin
specimen. If it is now subjected
to increasing compressive
stress, it is found that the yield
stress in compression is lower
than before. This observation is
known as the Bauschinger
effect  dependency on load
direction. (Jorge & Dinis, 2004)
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Elastoplasticity
 For small deformations, the strain tensor is
decomposed in elastic and plastic parts:

𝜀 = 𝜀𝑒 + 𝜀𝑝
 εe is the elastic strain;
 εp is the plastic strain;
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Elastoplasticity
 Theory of elasticity takes care of the elastic part, while
a mathematical model has to be defined in order to
describe the plastic part. This model is based on three
essential aspects:
• Yield criterion – defines the condition for the beginning of
the yielding;
• Hardening law – describes if and how the yield criterion
depends on the degree of plastic deformation;
• Flow law – defines the relationship between stress and
strain in yielding;
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Review
𝑛𝑥 = cos 𝑛, 𝑥 = 𝑙
൞𝑛𝑦 = cos 𝑛, 𝑦 = 𝑚
𝑛𝑧 = cos 𝑛, 𝑧 = 𝑛

(Dias da Silva, 2004)

Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Review
𝑛𝑥 = cos 𝑛, 𝑥 = 𝑙
൞𝑛𝑦 = cos 𝑛, 𝑦 = 𝑚
𝑛𝑧 = cos 𝑛, 𝑧 = 𝑛

Stresses in an inclined facet

(Dias da Silva, 2004)

Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Yield criteria
 Westergaard stress space – geometrical representation
of stresses.

α’ is a set of variables relative to hardening

σ is the stress tensor
Isotropic materials:

α is the hardening parameter

σY(α) is the yield strength function of hardening
(Jorge & Dinis, 2004) f(σ) is the yield function
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Yield criteria
Isotropic materials

𝑓 𝜎 < 𝜎𝑌 𝛼 A given point of the material is in the elastic range.

𝑓 𝜎 = 𝜎𝑌 𝛼 A given point of the material is in the plastic range.

When plastic range is reached, behavior is

governed by the yield function.
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Yield function
𝑇
𝜕𝑓 df < 0 indicates a situation of elastic
𝑑𝑓 𝜎 = 𝑑𝜎 + ⋯
𝜕𝜎 unloading. The stress state is inside the yield
surface, therefore elastic behavior is retaken;

df = 0 indicates a stress state on the yield

surface, with a constant hardening
parameter, α, therefore one is in the
perfectly plastic range;

df > 0 indicates a stress state on the yield

surface, without a constant hardening
parameter, α, therefore one has hardening.
(Jorge & Dinis, 2004)
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Yield criterion
 Developed over tensile tests;
 Different yield criteria were developed for ductile or
brittle materials;
 Apply to isotropic materials.
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Maximum normal stress criterion

 Also known as the Rankine criterion;
 Physical assumption: a given structural component yields when
the maximum normal stress in that component reaches the yield
strength obtained from the tensile test of a specimen of the
same material. Thus

(Jorge & Dinis, 2004)

Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Tresca yield criterion

 Tresca 1864
 Physical assumption: plastic yielding starts when the shearing
stress on any plane, in any direction, reaches a critical value

Elastic range – all inequalities

should be met;

Plastic range – one or two

equalities should be met;
Y(α) characteristic function obtained from a tensile test, dependent on the hardening
parameter
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Tresca yield criterion

 Graphically these
expressions define a
hexagonal prism in the
Westergaard stress
space, infinitely long,
which axes σ1 = σ2 = σ3 is
perpendicular to the
deviatoric plane defined
by

(Jorge & Dinis, 2004)

Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Von Mises yield criterion

 Von Mises 1913
 physical assumption: plastic yielding starts when the
second invariant J2 reaches a critical value;

Φ(α) is the radius of the yield surface and depends of the

hardening parameter.
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Von Mises yield criterion

 From tensile tests, it was observed that the
contribution to the deformation of the hydrostatic
component of the stress tensor can be ignored
resulting, therefore an effective stress can be defined
based on the deviatoric component, 𝜎ത
2
 Also, Φ = 𝜎
3 𝑌
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Von Mises yield criterion

 Hencky (1924) interpretation of Von Mises is that
yielding occurs when the elastic energy stored in
changes of shape reaches a critical value;
Deformation energy per
Bulk modulus
unit volume

Dilatation energy
per unit volume

Distortion energy per

= 0, for ν = 0.5
unit volume
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Von Mises yield criterion

 Resulting on the yielding function:

 Von Mises is a particular case of the Beltrami yielding

criterion, applied to materials where the volumetric
strain can be ignored
 The admissible domain in the Westergaard stress space
is a cylinder
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Comparison Tresca and Von Mises

 Both ideal for metals;
 Hydrostatic stress plays no role;
 Uniaxial tensile and
compressive strengths are the
same;
 Tresca criterion is more
conservative than the Von
Mises criterion;
 The maximum difference occurs
for pure shear
(Jorge & Dinis, 2004)
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion

 Developed for brittle materials
 Different values for tensile and compressive strengths
 Experimentally, an envelope curve can be defined from several
Mohr circles of the principle stresses corresponding to yielding
of a material

(Jorge & Dinis, 2004)

Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion

 Coulomb 1773
 The critical value of shear stress is not constant – it depends on
the normal stress acting on the considered plane
 A state of stress is safe if it is represented by a circle located
entirely within the area bounded by the envelope of the circles
corresponding to the available data.

In the Westergaard stress space is a

hexagonal pyramid.
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion

 Simplified Mohr-Coulomb

(Jorge & Dinis, 2004)

Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Drucker-Prager yield criterion

 Developed for brittle materials
 The critical value of stored elastic energy is not
constant – it depends on the hydrostatic stress
 In the Westergaard stress space is a cone.
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Comparison Mohr-Coulomb and Drucker-Prager

 Uniaxial tensile strength is lower than uniaxial
compressive strength
 Hydrostatic stress is important
 Conditions suitable for materials with internal friction
 Mohr-Coulomb presents better approximations to the
experimental results
 Drucker-Prager is easier to program since it has no
angular points and a singular analytical function
Introduction to nonlinear mechanics S. Moreira & N. Tarque

Bibliography
Crisfield, M. A. (1991). Non-linear finite element analysis of solids and structures. Volume
1. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. http://doi.org/10.1002/cnm.1640100810

Crisfield, M. A. (1997). Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis of Solids and Structures.

Volume 2. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. http://doi.org/10.1002/9781118375938

Dias da Silva, V. (2004). Mecanica e resistencia dos materiais. (L. Zuari - Edicao de Livros
Técnicos, Ed.) (Third). Coimbra.

Jorge, R. M. N., & Dinis, L. M. J. S. (n.d.). Apontamentos de Teoria da Plasticidade. Porto.

Lubliner, J. (2005). PLASTICITY THEORY Revised Edition, 528.

Presentations of Structural Analysis of Historical Structures (SAHC) masters, 2009/2010