Engineering 176

Orbital Design

Mr. Ken Ramsley

kenneth_ramsley@brown.edu
(508) 881- 5361
 Class Topics
When Orbits Were Perfect (and politically dangerous)
Einstein’s Geodesics (the art and science of motion)
Kepler’s Three Laws (based on Tycho’s meticulous data)
Orbital Elements Defined and Illustrated
Useful Orbits and Maneuvers to Get There
Interplanetary Space and Beyond

EN176 Orbital Design

 The Ancients

Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) Claudius Ptolemaeus (AD 83 – c.168)

 Copernicus and Tycho

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 - 1543) Tycho Brahe (1546 - 1601)

 The Copernicus Solar System

Image: Courtesy of tychobrahe.com

Tycho Brahe's Uraniborg

Observatory and 90°
Star Sighting Quadrant
 Kepler and Galileo

Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630) Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642)

 Newton and LaGrange

Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727) Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736-1813)

Einstein
 All objects in motion
Geodesics: The Science and Art of 4D conserve momentum
through a balance of
Curved Space Trajectories.
Gravity Potential
and
Velocity Vector
(think rollercoaster)
 Defining Simple 2-Body Orbits

This is all we need to know…

• Shape – More like a circle, or stretched out?
• Size – Mostly nearby, or farther into space?
• Orbital Plane Orientation – Pitch, Yaw, and Roll
• Satellite Location – Where are we in this orbit?
 Kepler’s First Law

Every orbit is
an ellipse with
the Sun (main
body) located
at one foci.
 Kepler’s Second Law
Day 40
Day 50 Day 30

Day 60
Day 20

Day 70

Day 80

Day 90

Day 10
Day 100

Day 110 Day 0

A line between an orbiting Day 120
body and primary body sweeps
out equal areas in equal
intervals of time.
 Kepler’s Third Law
This defines the
relationship of
Orbital Period &
Average Radius R2 EXAMPLE:
for any two
Earth
bodies in orbit. R1 P 1 P2 P = 1 Year
For a given
body, the orbital R = 1 AU
period and
average distance
Mars
for the second
orbiting body is: P = 1.88 Years
R = 1.52 AU
P = Orbital Period
P2 = R3 R = Average Radius
 Vernal Equinox – The Celestial Baseline

First some
June 21st
astronomy…
When the Sun
passes over the
equator moving
south to north.
Vernal Equinox
Sun (March 20th)

Defines a fixed
vector in space
Epoch 2000 through the center
The Vernal Equinox drifts of the Earth to a
~0.014° / year. Orbits are
December 22nd known celestial
therefore calculated for a
specified date and time, (most
coordinate point.
often Jan 1, 2000, 2050 or today).
 Conic Sections (shape) Eccentricity
• e=0 -- circle
• e<1 -- ellipse
• e=1 -- parabola
• e>1 -- hyperbola

e < 1 Orbit is ‘closed’ – recurring path (elliptical)

 e > 1 Not an orbit – passing trajectory (hyperbolic)
 Keplerian Elements e, a, and v (3 of 6)
e 150°
120°
90°
Eccentricity
(0.0 to 1.0)
v
True anomaly
(angle)
Apogee a Perigee
180° 0°
Semi-major
axis
(nm or km)
e=0.8 vrs e=0.0

Apo/Peri gee – Earth e defines ellipse shape

Apo/Peri lune – Moon
Apo/Peri helion – Sun a defines ellipse size
Apo/Peri apsis – non-specific v defines satellite angle from
 Inclination i (4th Keplerian Element)

Intersection of the
equatorial and
orbital planes (above) Inclination
(angle)
i

(below)
Ascending
Node Equatorial Plane
( defined by Earth’s equator )

Sample inclinations
Ascending Node is where a 0° -- Geostationary
satellite crosses the equatorial 52° -- ISS
plane moving south to north 98° -- Mapping
Right Ascension [1] of the ascending node Ω and
Argument of perigee ω (5th and 6th Elements)
Ω = angle from
vernal equinox to
ascending node on
the equatorial plane
Perigee Direction
ω = angle from
ascending node to
perigee on the
orbital plane

ω
Ω
Ascending
Node

Right Ascension is the astronomical

[1]

Vernal Equinox term for celestial (star) longitude.

 The Six Keplerian Elements
a = Semi-major axis (usually in
kilometers or nautical miles)
e = Eccentricity (of the elliptical orbit)
v = True anomaly The angle between
perigee and satellite in the orbital
plane at a specific time
i = Inclination The angle between the
orbital and equatorial planes
Ω = Right Ascension (longitude) of
the ascending node The angle from
the Vernal Equinox vector to the
ascending node on the equatorial
plane
 = Argument of perigee The angle
measured between the ascending
node and perigee Shape, Size,
Orientation,
and Satellite
Location.
 Sample Keplerian Elements (ISS)
TWO LINE MEAN ELEMENT SET - ISS
1 25544U 98067A 09061.52440963 .00010596 00000-0 82463-4 0 9009
2 25544 51.6398 133.2909 0009235 79.9705 280.2498 15.71202711 29176

Satellite: ISS
Catalog Number: 25544
Epoch time: 09061.52440963 = yrday.fracday
Element set: 900
Inclination: 51.6398 deg
RA of ascending node: 133.2909 deg
Eccentricity: .0009235
Arg of perigee: 79.9705 deg
Mean anomaly: 280.2498 deg
Mean motion: 15.71202711 rev/day (semi-major axis derivable from this)
Decay rate: 1.05960E-04 rev/day^2
Epoch rev: 2917
Checksum: 315
 State Vectors
NonKeplerian Coordinate System
Cartesian x, y, z, and 3D velocity
 Orbit determination

On Board GPS
Ground Based Radar:
Distance or “Range” (kilometers).
Elevation or “Altitude” (Horizon = 0°, Zenith = 90°).
Azimuth (Clockwise in degrees with due north = 0°).
On board Radio Transponder Ranging:
Alt-Az plus radio signal turnaround delay (like radar).

Ground Sightings:
Alt-Az only (best fit from many observations).
 Launch From Vertical Takeoff
• Raising your altitude from 0 to 300 km (‘standing’ jump)
– Energy = mgh = 1 kg x 9.8 m/s2 x 300,000 m
∆V = 1715 m/s

• 7 km/s lateral velocity at 300 km altitude (orbital insertion)

– ∆V (velocity) = 7000 m/s
– ∆V (altitude) = 1715 m/s
– ∆V (total) = 8715 m/s [1]

[1] plus another 1500 m/s lost to drag during early portion of flight.
Launch From Airplane at 200 m/s and 10
km altitude
Raise altitude from 10 to 300 km (‘flying’ jump)
Energy = mgh = 1 kg x 9.8 m/s2 x 290,000 m
∆V = 1686 m/s (98% of ground based launch ∆V)
(96% of ground based launch energy)
Accelerate to 7000 m/s from 200 m/s
∆V (velocity) = 6800 m/s (97% of ground ∆V, 94% of energy)
∆V (∆Height) = 1686 m/s (98% of ground ∆V, 96% of energy)
∆V (total, with airplane) = 8486 m/s + 1.3 km/s drag loss = 9800 m/s
∆V (total, from ground) = 8715 m/s + 1.5 km/s drag loss = 10200 m/s
Total Velocity savings: 4%, Total Energy savings: 8%

Downsides: Human rating required for entire system, limited launch vehicle
dimension and mass, fewer propellant choices, airplane expenses.
Ground Tracks

Ground tracks drift

westward as the Earth
rotates below an orbit.

Each orbit type has a

signature ground tract.
More Astronomy Facts

The Sun
Drifts east in the sky ~1° per day.
Rises 0.066 hours later each day.
(because the earth is orbiting)

The Earth…
Rotates 360° in 23.934 hours
(Celestial or “Sidereal” Day)
Rotates ~361° in 24.000 hours
(Noon to Noon or “Solar” Day)

Satellites orbits are aligned to the

Sidereal day – not the solar day
 Orbital Perturbations
“All orbits evolve”
Atmospheric Drag (at LEO altitudes, only)
– Worse during increased solar activity.
– Insignificant above ~800km.
Nodal Regression – The Earth is an oblate spheroid.
This adds extra “pull” when a satellite passes over the
equator – rotating the plane of the orbit to the east.
Other Factors – Gravitational irregularities – such as
Earth-axis wobbles, Moon, Sun, Jupiter gravity (tends to
flatten inclination). Solar photon pressure. Insignificant
for LEO – primary perturbations elsewhere.
 ‘LEO’ < ~1,000km (Satellite Telephones, ISS)
‘MEO’ = ~1,000km to 36,000km (GPS)
‘GEO’ = 36,000km (CommSats, HDTV)
‘Deep Space’ > ~GEO

LEO is most common, shortest life. MEO difficult due to radiation belts.
Most GEO orbit perturbation is latitude drift due to Sun and Moon.
 Nodal Regression
Orbital planes
rotate eastward
over time. (above)

Ascending
Node
(below)

Nodal Regression
can be very useful.
 Sun-Synchronous Orbits
Relies on nodal regression to shift the ascending node ~1° per day.
Scans the same path under the same lighting conditions each day.
The number of orbits per 24 hours must be an even integer (usually 15).
Requires a slightly retrograde orbit (I = 97.56° for a 550km / 15-orbit SSO).
Each subsequent pass is 24° farther west (if 15 orbits per day).
Repeats the pattern on the 16th orbit (or fewer for higher altitude SSOs).
Used for reconnaissance (or terrain mapping – with a bit of drift).
 Molniya - 12hr Period
‘Long loitering’ high latitude apogee. Once used
used for early warning by both USA and USSR
‘Tundra’ Orbit - 24hr Period

Higher apogee than Molniya. For dwelling over

a specific upper latitude (Used only by Sirius)
GPS Constellation ~ 20200km alt.

GPS: Six orbits with six

equally-spaced satellites
occupying each orbit.
Hohmann Transfer Orbit

Hohmann transfer orbit

intersects both orbits.
Requires co-planar initial
and ending orbits.
After 180°, second burn
establishes the new orbit.
Can be used to reduce or
increase orbit altitudes.
By far the most common
orbital maneuver.
 Orbital Plane Changes
Burn must take place where the
initial and target planes intersect.
Even a small amount of plane
change requires lots of ΔV
Less ΔV required at higher altitudes
θ (e.g., slower orbital velocities).
Often combined with Hohmann
transfer or rendezvous maneuver.

Simple Plane Change Formula (No Hohmann component):

Plane Change ΔV = 2 x Vorbit x sin(θ/2)

Example: Orbit Velocity = 7000m/s, Target Inclination Change =

30°
Plane Change ΔV = 2 x 7000m/s x sin(30°/ 2)
Plane Change ΔV = 3623m/s
Fast Transfer Orbit

Requires less time due to

higher energy transfer orbit.
Also faster since transfer is
complete in less 180°.
Can be used to reduce or
increase orbit altitudes.
Less common than Hohmann
Typically an upper stage
restart where excess fuel is
often available.
Geostationary Transfer Orbit ‘GTO’

Requires plane change

and circularizing burns.
Less plane changing is
2. Plane change required when launched
where GTO plane from near the equator.
intersects GEO
plane

1. launch to
‘GTO’

3. Hohmann
circularizing burn
3. Second ‘Super GTO’
Hohmann burn
circularizes at
GEO GEO Initial orbit has greater
Target apogee than standard
Orbit GTO.
Plane change at much
higher altitude requires
far less ΔV.
PRO: Less overall ΔV
from higher inclination
launch sites.
CON: Takes longer to
establish the final orbit.

1. Launch to
2. Plane change
‘Super GTO’
plus initial
Hohmann burn
 Low Thrust Orbit Transfer
A series of plane and altitude changes. Continuous electric engine propulsion.

PROs: Lower mass propulsion system. Same system used for orbital maintenance.
CONs: Weeks or even months to reach final
Launch when the
Rendezvous
orbital plane of the
target vehicle crosses
launch pad.
(Ideally) launch as the
target vehicle passes
straight overhead.
Smaller transfer orbits
slowly overtake target
(because of shorter
orbit periods).
Course maneuvers
designed to arrive in
the same orbit at the
same true anomaly.

Apollo LM
and CSM
Rendezvous
 Orbital Debris a.k.a., ‘Space Junk’
February 2009 Iriduim / Cosmos collision created > 1,000 items > 10cm diameter

Currently > 19,000 items 10cm or larger. ~ 700 (4%) functioning S/C.
In as few as 50 years, upper LEO and lower MEO may be unusable.
 Deep Space

Cassini – Saturn orbit

insertion using good ‘ol
fashion rocket power.
Using Lagrange Points to ‘stay put’
Halo Orbits (stability from motion)
 AeroBraking
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, etc.
“The poor man’s Hohmann maneuver”
 The Solar System ‘Super Highway’ …
designing geodesic trajectories – like tossing a message bottle into
the sea at exactly the right time, direction, and velocity.
Gravity Assist (Removing Velocity)
Gravity Assist (adding velocity)
Solar Escape
Multiple Mission
Trajectories
 Complex Orbital Trajectories

Galileo (Jupiter)
Cassini (Saturn)
 Designing Deep Space
Missions
…yes, there are software tools for this
 Assignments for April 2
Reading on Orbits:
SMAD ch 6 – scan 5 and 7
TLOM ch 3 and 4 – scan 5 and 17

HOMEWORK:
Design minimum two, Create a trade table to
preferably three orbits compare orbit designs.
your mission could use.
For the selected orbits: Trade criteria should include:
Describe it (orbital elements) Orbit suitability for mission.
How will you get there? Cost to get there – and stay there.
How will you stay there? Space environment (e.g., radiation).
Estimate perturbations Engineering 176 Orbits