AER 602

Experimental methods in
aerospace engineering
Mohammed Khalil Ibrahim
Associate professor
The University of Cairo
School of Engineering
Aerospace Engineering Department
Experimental Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
Email: mkhalil@eng.cu.edu.eg
Tel: +20-2-3567 8653
 Course description
Students should understand the basic experimental
principles and methods measure structural,
aerodynamic, propulsion and control properties, stress
and strain and displacement methods, dynamic
excitation, resonance, modal analysis, aeroelastic
testing, types of wind tunnels, measurement systems
and instruments, calibration methods, measurement of
pressure, speed, temperature, density, humidity and
airflow., data acquisition and archiving, response time,
signal processing, experimental error sources,
experimental error correction, error analysis, statistical
data analysis.

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Course Content
• Introduction and Basic Concepts
• Analysis of Experimental Data
• The Analog Measured: Time Dependent Characteristics
• Response of Measuring System
• Sensors
• Signal Conditioning
• Data Acquisitions Systems and Processing (LabView)
• Applied Mechanical Measurements (Displacement,
Strain, Stress Measurements , ..etc
• Reporting of Experimental Data

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Basic Information
• Lectures 2 Hrs/week
• Office Hours:
– Will be announced later at my office board
– Appointment: mkhalil@eng.cu.edu.eg
• Teaching Aids
– EFD
– MMFM DVD, NSF, Cambridge University Press. (if applicable)
– NSF Video
– An Album of Fluid Motion, Van Dyke
• Communications
– www.eng.cu.edu.eg/aerospace

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Course References
• Textbook
– “Experimental Methods for Engineers”, by J.P. Holman, Southern
Methodist University.
– “Instrumentation for Engineering Measurements”, By James W. Dally,
William F. Riley, and Kenneth G. McConnell
– “Mechanical Measurements”, Thomas G. Beckwith, Roy D. Marangoni,
John H. Lienhard.
• Supplementary Textbooks
– “Fluid Mechanics Measurements”, Second Edition, by R. Goldstein
– “Measurement in Fluid Mechanics”, Stavros Tavoularis, University of
Ottawa.
– “Springer Handbook of Experimental Fluid Mechanics”, by Cameron
Tropea, Alexander L. Yarin, John F. Foss
• Handouts

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Suggested Course Grading
Policy

Regular Cours
• Final exam is a CLOSED BOOK EXAM. (May be with a cheating sheets!)
• Late due assignments and projects will NOT BE ACCEPTED.

• Last Year Experiments

• Calibration of the pressure transducer

- Assignmen
• Measurement of strain in a simple cantilever using stain gauges
• Measurement of Natural modes of a simple cantilever using
accelerometer and stain gauges
• Construct your field view project (this year)
ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering
ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 General Policies
• Regular attendance and participation are expected. Absence from
tests must be explained with medical certificates or other valid
reasons beyond your control and planning. Ask anyone for help on
homework, but what you submit must be your own work.
• Late lecture attendance (over 15 min.) is NOT ALLAOWED.
• Switch off you mobile phones in lectures.
• Students with less than 70% attendance rate is not allowed for
final exam.

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Basic Concept
• Significance of Measurements
– Design
– Control
– Monitoring
– Validation
• Fundamental of Method of Measurements
– Direct
– Indirect or Calibrated
• Measurements Standards
• Calibration
• Uncertainty

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Generalized Measuring System

Calibration
Auxiliary power Auxiliary power Auxiliary power
Measurand

Sensor/ Signal
Readout device
transducer Conditioner

Noise, Drift, ..etc e.g. amplifiers

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Types o Inputs Quantities
• Time dependence
– Static
– Dynamic
• Steady State
• Non-repetitive
– Single pulse
– Continuing or random
• Analog and digital

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Basic Concepts
• Accuracy
• Precision
• Resolution
• Sensitivity
• Hysteresis

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Accuracy
The difference between the measured and
true values. Typically, a manufacturer will
specify a maximum error as the accuracy;
Manufacturers often neglect to report the
odds that an error will not exceed this
maximum. Accuracy is usually expressed
as a percentage of full-scale reading e.g.
100-kPa pressure gauge with 1% accuracy.

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Precision
The difference between the instrument’s
reported values during repeated
measurements of the same quantity.
Typically this value is determined by
statistical analysis of repeated
measurements. e.g. Five reading for 100V
as 104, 104, 103, 105, 105 with an
accuracy of 5% (5V). The mean is 103 with
a precision of ± 1.

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Review: Accuracy and
Precision
• Accuracy: The difference between the measured and true
values. Typically, a manufacturer will specify a maximum error
as the accuracy; Manufacturers often neglect to report the
odds that an error will not exceed this maximum. Accuracy is
usually expressed as a percentage of full-scale reading e.g.
100-kPa pressure gauge with 1% accuracy.
– In short: deviation (or error) of reading from a true value;

• Precision: The difference between the instrument’s reported

values during repeated measurements of the same quantity.
Typically this value is determined by statistical analysis of
repeated measurements. e.g. Five reading for 100V as 104,
104, 103, 105, 105 with an accuracy of 5% (5V). The mean is
103 with a precision of ± 1.
– In short: Precision: ability to reproduce a reading (not
necessarily correct);
– It is also called reproducibility or repeatability

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Review: Accuracy and
Precision

A: Three arrows hit the target center and are very close together = high
accuracy and precision
B: Three arrows hit the target center but are not very close together =
high accuracy, low precision
C: Three arrows do not hit the target center but are very close together
= low accuracy, high precision
D: Three arrows do not hit the target center and are not close together =
low accuracy and precision
ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering
ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Resolution (Least count)
The smallest increment of change in
the measured value that can be
determined from the instrument’s
readout scale. The resolution is often
on the same order as the precision;
sometimes it is smaller.

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Sensitivity
The change of an instrument or
transducer’s output per unit change in the
measured quantity. A more sensitive
instrument’s reading changes significantly
in response to smaller change in the
measured quantity. Typically, an instrument
with higher sensitivity will also have finer
resolution, better precision, and higher
accuracy.

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Hysteresis
An instrument is said to exhibit
hysteresis when there is a difference
in reading depending on whether the
value of the measured quantity is
approached from above or below.
Hysteresis may be the result of
mechanical frication, magnetic
effects, elastic deformation, or
thermal effects.

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Error
• Error = ε = xm – xtrue
xm: Measured quantity
xtrue: True quantity
• A primary objective in designing and
executing an experiment is to
minimize this error.

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Error: Uncertainty and
probability
When an experiment is completed, we must determine:
1) Measurement uncertainty; and
2) Probability (odds of obtaining “a given number of
measurements in n having errors outside the uncertainty
limits”);

In other words, it is necessary to determine:

xm − u ≤ xtrue ≤ xm + u (n : 1)

where “u” is the “uncertainty” estimated at odds of “n:1”

i.e., only one measurement in n will have an error whose
magnitude is greater than “u”

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Type of Error
• Bias or systematic errors
• Precision or random errors
• Illegitimate errors

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Type of Error (Continue)
Bias error > Precision error
Distribution of combined b
Frequency of occurance

Bais error and precision error

Average of the
measured values

Total error Precision error

Measured value
with respect to the avera

Xtrue Measured value, xm Xm

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Type of Error (Continue)
Precision error > Bias error
Total error
Frequency of occurance

Bais error Precision error

Average of the
measured values Distribution of combined b
and precision error

Measured value
with respect to the average

Xtrue Xm

Measured value, xm

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Bias or systematic errors
• Calibration errors
• Consistently recurring human errors
• Defective equipment
• Loading errors – measuring process
alter the characteristics
• Limitations of system resolution

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Precision or random errors
• Human errors
• Caused by disturbances to
equipment
• Caused by fluctuating experimental
conditions
• Derived from insufficient
measurement-system resolution

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Illegitimate errors
• Blunders and mistakes during an
experiment
• Computational errors after an
experiment

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Errors that can be bias errors
or precision errors
• From instrumentation errors: backlash, friction,
hysteresis
• From calibration drift and variation in test or
environmental conditions (temperture change for
short and long test duration)
• From variations in procedure or definition among
experimenters

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor
 Error Types - Notes
Calibration Error Hysteresis Error

ER 602, Experimental Methods in Aerospace Engineering

ohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Associate Professor