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Nivaldo Tro
Chapter 7
The Quantum–
Mechanical
Model of the
Atom
Roy Kennedy
Massachusetts Bay Community College
Wellesley Hills, MA
Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic Radiation or “Light” is
composed of two orthogonal vectors:
An electric wave and a magnetic wave.
Electromagnetic Radiation
• Light is characterized by its wavelength and
frequency.
Electromagnetic Radiation
wavelength
The intensity of
Amplitude light is a function
of the wave’s
amplitude.
wavelength Node
A point of zero
Ultraviolet radiation amplitude is called
a “node”.
Electromagnetic Radiation
• The frequency of light is represented by the
Greek letter “nu”,
• has units of “cycles per sec” or Hertz (s-1)
• All radiation obeys the relationship:
= c
• Long wavelength, low frequency
• Short wavelength, high frequency
• Wavelength and frequency are inversely
proportional.
Electromagnetic Radiation
increasing
frequency
increasing
wavelength
Electromagnetic Radiation
6.85 107 m
1m
685 nm
1 109 nm
m
3.00 10 8
c s 4.38 1014 sec 1
frequency ( )
6.85 10 m -7
Quantization of Energy
Max Planck (1858-1947) proposed that light waves existed as discrete
packets of energy, “quanta” in order to account for the “ultraviolet
catastrophe” predicted by classical physics. The “ultraviolet catastrophe”
arises from the classical theory for the energy emitted by an ideal black-
body governed by the Rayleigh-Jeans law. According
to classical physics, the intensity of emitted light
approaches infinity as the wavelength of the light
approaches zero, hence the
term catastrophe.
Quantization of Energy
An object can gain or lose energy by absorbing or
emitting radiant energy in QUANTA. A quanta of
energy is the smallest unit of energy that may be
exchanged between oscillators or emitted as
radiation. It is too small to be observed in the
classical world in which we live.
Energy of radiation is proportional to frequency
E = h·
h = Planck’s constant = 6.6262 x 10-34 J·s
Quantization of Energy
E = h·
h´c
Ephoton = h´ n =
l
Energy of Radiation
Problem:
Calculate the energy of 1.00 mol of photons of red
light at 685 nm units of kJ/mol.
h´c
Ephoton = h´ n =
l
hc
Ephoton = =
l
Energy of Radiation
Problem:
Calculate the energy of 1.00 mol of photons of red
light at 685 nm units of kJ/mol.
h´c
Ephoton = h´ n =
l
J s
6.626 1034 ´3.00 ´ 108 m
hc photon s
Ephoton = =
l 1m
685 nm ´
109 nm
Energy of Radiation
Problem:
Calculate the energy of 1.00 mol of photons of red
light at 685 nm units of kJ/mol.
h´c
Ephoton = h´ n =
l
J s
6.626 1034 ´3.00 ´ 108 m
hc photon s 6.022 ´ 1023 photons
Ephoton = = ´
l 1m mole
685 nm ´ 9
10 nm
J
= 1.75 ´ 10 5
mole of photons
Energy of Radiation
Problem:
Calculate the energy of 1.00 mol of photons of red
light at 685 nm units of kJ/mol.
J 1kJ kJ
1.75 ´ 105
´ 3 = 175
mole of photons 10 J mole
Solution:
Determine if the energy of the light is greater than the
minimum threshold energy. If so, then electrons will
be ejected, if not, then the switch will not work.
Photoelectric Effect
Problem:
You are an engineer that is designing a switch that works via
the photoelectric effect. The metal used requires 6.710-19
J/atom to eject electrons. Will the switch work with light of 540
nm or greater? Why or why not?
h´c
Ephoton = h´ n =
l
Photoelectric Effect
Problem:
You are an engineer that is designing a switch that works via
the photoelectric effect. The metal used requires 6.710-19
J/atom to eject electrons. Will the switch work with light of 540
nm or greater? Why or why not?
h´c
Ephoton = h´ n =
l
-34 m
6.626 ´ 10 J × s ´3.00 ´ 10
8
s
Ephoton = = 3.71019J
m
540 nm ´ 9
10 nm
Photoelectric Effect
Problem:
You are an engineer that is designing a switch that works via
the photoelectric effect. The metal used requires 6.710-19
J/atom to eject electrons. Will the switch work with light of 540
nm or greater? Why or why not?
Conclusion:
The energy of the light is below the minimum
threshold. No ejection of electrons will occur. The
incident light must have a 297 nm to eject
electrons. (Confirm this on your own.)
Atomic Line Emission Spectra and
Niels Bohr
Bohr is credited with the first modern
model of the hydrogen atom based
on the “line spectra” of atomic
emission sources.
He proposed a “planetary” structure
for the atom where the electrons
circled the nucleus in defined orbits.
In this model, the attractive
Niels Bohr electrostatic forces of the electron
(1885-1962) and nucleus were balanced by the
centripetal forces of the orbiting
electron.
Spectrum of White Light
The “Balmer”
series for the
hydrogen atom
is in the visible
region of the
spectrum.
A “series” of
transitions end
with a common
lower level.
Line Spectra of Other Elements
High E Low E
Short Long
High Low
Rhc
En =- 2
n
R = Rydberg constant (1.097 107 m-1) c = speed of light
(2.997 108 ms-1)
h = Planck’s constant
(6.626 10-34Js) n = the quantum level of the
electron (1, 2, 3…)
Rhc
En = - 2
n
Problem:
Determination the photon wavelength of a transition
between two energy levels:
Rhc
En = - 2
n
DE = Efinal - Einitial
Problem:
Determination the photon wavelength of a transition
between two energy levels:
Rhc
En = - 2
n
DE = Efinal - Einitial
Rhc æ Rhc ö
DE = - 2 - ç - 2 ÷
nfinal è ninitial ø
Problem:
Determination the photon wavelength of a transition
between two energy levels:
Rhc
En = - 2
n
DE = Efinal - Einitial
Rhc æ Rhc ö æ 1 1 ö
DE = - 2 - ç - 2 ÷ = -Rhc ç 2 - 2 ÷
nfinal è ninitial ø è nfinal ninitial ø
Problem:
Determination the photon wavelength of a transition
between two energy levels:
æ 1 1 ö
DE = -Rhc ç 2 - 2 ÷
è nfinal ninitial ø
Problem:
Determination the photon wavelength of a transition
between two energy levels:
æ 1 1 ö
DE = -Rhc ç 2 - 2 ÷
è nfinal ninitial ø
h´c
E=
l
Problem:
Determination the photon wavelength of a transition
between two energy levels:
æ 1 1 ö
DE = -Rhc ç 2 - 2 ÷
è nfinal ninitial ø
h´c h´c
E= DE =
l lphoton
Problem:
Determination the photon wavelength of a transition
between two energy levels:
æ 1 1 ö
DE = -Rhc ç 2 - 2 ÷
è nfinal ninitial ø
h´c h´c
E= DE =
l lphoton
h´c
lphoton (meters) =
DE
Problem:
Determination the photon wavelength of a transition
between two energy levels:
æ 1 1 ö
DE = -Rhc ç 2 - 2 ÷
è nfinal ninitial ø
h´c h´c
E= DE =
l lphoton
h´c
lphoton (meters) = take the absolute
DE value to assure a
positive wavelength.
The sign of E tells the direction:
(+) indicated absorption (-) indicates emission
Problem:
Determination the photon wavelength of a transition
between two energy levels:
R ´ h ´ c = 2.179 ´ 10-18 J
æ 1 1 ö
DE = -Rhc ç 2 - 2 ÷
è nfinal ninitial ø nfinal = 5 ninitial = 2
æ 1 1ö n =5
DE = -2.179 ´ 10 -18
J ´ç 2 - 2 ÷
è 5 2 ø energy
in
DE = 4.576 ´ 10-19 J n =2
æ 1 1 ö æ 1 ö
ç n2 - n 2 ÷ = ç n 2 - n2 ÷
è final initial ø è final initial ø
1 1 1
- = 0.04 - 0.25 = -0.21 = +0.048
25 4 25 - 4
Problem:
Determination the photon wavelength of a transition
between two energy levels:
h´c
DE = = 4.576 ´ 10-19 J
lphoton
9
10 nm
photon 4.340 10 m ´ 7
= 434.0 nm
1m
Particle-Wave Duality: A Prelude to
Quantum Mechanics
Louis de Broglie in
response to Planck &
Einstein’s assertion that
light was “particle-like”
(photon) stated that small
particles should exhibit a
L. de Broglie characteristic wavelength.
(1892-1987)
Particle-Wave Duality: A Prelude to
Quantum Mechanics
E = mc 2 hn = mc 2
hn
= mc = p (momentum)
c
n 1
since =
L. de Broglie c l
(1892-1987)
h h
= p or l =
Conclusion: l p
Light waves have mass,
particles have a wavelength.
Problem:
What is the wavelength associated with an 80g tennis
ball (d = 8 cm) moving at 115 miles per hour?
h
l =
p
(tennis ball) = 2 x 10 –34 m The ball is a bajillion times the
size of the wavelength !!!
l(ball)
= 2.5 ´ 10-33 No wonder we can’t see it.
diameter(ball)
Compare that to an electron moving at the same velocity:
l(electron)
(electron) = 1.4 x 10 –5 m = 3.2 ´ 109
diameter(electron)
Dx × mDv ³ h
Wave or Quantum Mechanics
• Taking on the ideas of Bohr, de
Broglie and Heisenberg, Irwin
Schrödinger proposed that matter
can be described as a wave.
• In this theory, the electron is
treated as both a wave and a
E. Schrodinger particle.
1887-1961 • An electron is described by a Wave
Function “” that completely
defines a system of matter.
Schrödinger’s Equation
• l = 0, ml = 0
• 2l+1 = 1
• one s-orbital that extends in a radial manner from
the nucleus forming a spherical shape.
Spherical Nodes
2 s orbital
2(3)+1 = 7
f-Orbitals
One of the 7 possible f-orbitals.
Source of electrons
Electron Spin
Quantum
Number, ms