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• Amplification
• Attenuation
• Filtering (highpass, Iowpass, bandpass, or bandstop)
• Differentiation
• Integration
• Linearization
• Combining a measured signal with a reference signal
• Converting a resistance to a voltage signal
• Converting a current signal to a voltage signal
• Converting a voltage signal to a current signal
• Converting a frequency signal to a voltage signal
More than one signal-conditioning function, such as amplification
and filtering, can be performed on a signal.
General Characteristics of Signal Amplification
• Many transducers produce signals with low voltages
• Signals in the millivolt range are common, and in some
cases, signals are in the microvolt range.
• It is difficult to transmit such signals over wires of great
length, and many processing systems require input
voltages on the order of 1 to 10 V.
• The amplitude of such signals can be increased using a
device called an amplifier, shown as a block diagram in Fig.
The degree of amplification is specified by a
parameter called the gain, G:
When the same voltage (relative to ground) is applied to the two input terminals, the input
is known as a common-mode voltage . Instrumentation amplifier will produce an output in
response to differential-mode voltages but will produce no output in response to common-
mode voltages.
The measure of the relative response to differential- and common
mode voltages is described by common-mode rejection ratio,
defined by
Gdif is the gain for a differential-mode voltage
• displacement,
• linear velocity,
• Angular
• velocity, • gage, • Amplification
• acceleration, • cell, • Attenuation
• force, • pickup, • Filtering (highpass,
• pressure, • Transmitter Iowpass, bandpass, or
• temperature, Converts bandstop)
• heat flux, physical • Differentiation
• humidity, • Integration
changes to
• fluid flow rate,
electrical pulses • Linearization
• light intensity,
• Chemical • Converting a resistance to
Characteristic a voltage signal
• chemical • Converting a current
composition. signal to a voltage signal
Amplifiers Using Operational Amplifiers
• Practical signal amplifiers can be constructed using a common, low-cost.
Integrated circuit
• component called an operational amplifier, or simply an op-amp. An op-
amp is represented schematically by a triangular symbol as shown in
figure below.
Figure 3.10
• The input voltages (Vn , Vp) are applied to two input terminals (labeled +
and -), and
• the output voltage (Vo) appears through a single output terminal.
• There are two power supply terminals, labeled V+ and V-.
The op-amp gain is given by small g to distinguish it from G, the gain
of amplifier circuits using the op-amp as a component. The output of
the op-amp in the open-loop configuration shown in Figure 3.10 is
given by
The current flow from point B into the op-amp negative terminal will be
small due to the high op-amp input impedance and will be neglected.
Although the gain is constant over the bandwidth, the phase angle between the input
and the output, @, shows a strong variation with frequency.
For the non-inverting amplifier in Figure 3.11, the phase-angle variation with
frequency is given by