Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Instructor
Major Kayesh Md. Ashraf, Dr. Engg.
MIST
Kossel & Lewis Theory (Electronic Theory)
Valence electrons are the electrons in the highest occupied energy level of an elements atoms.
They determine the chemical properties of an element.
Chemical bonding may result from
transfer of one/more electrons (ionic bond),
sharing of electrons between atoms (covalent bond, coordination covalent bond).
Electrons are transferred or shared until each atom acquires an OCTET of outer shell (valence)
electrons (OCTET RULE).
Octet Rule – the tendency to achieve an electronic configuration with eight valence electrons. An octet of
electrons consists of a full s and p subshells of an atom.
Lewis Structures – a combination of Lewis symbols representing the transfer or sharing of electrons in a
chemical bond.
Lewis structures
Lewis Structure: Representation of a molecule that shows how
the valence electrons are arranged among the atoms in the
molecule.
Polar
Formation of ionic compound
Formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to the other to complete the
orbital in each case. Usually we see this bond formation between metal and non-metal.
e
Metal atom Non-metal atom
donate electron receive electron
1s22s22p63s23p5 1s22s22p63s23p6
Argon structure
×× ××
-
o +
Na + × Cl ×× Na ×
× Cl ××
×× ××
Na+: 1s22s22p6 Cl-: 1s22s22p63s23p6
Neon structure Argon structure
Home Work:
Electron grouping s2p6d10 in Zn2+, Cd2+ and Hg2+ are stable and no extra
e- is lost from these cations.
Transition metal cations show variable charge and do not have either
inert gas s2p6 or 18 electron s2p6d10
Fe: 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2
Fe2+:1s22s22p63s23p63d6
Fe3+: 1s22s22p63s23p63d5
Exceptions to Octet Rule
Odd-electron species
NO
NO2
Incomplete octet
BH3
Expanded octet
Some central atoms can exceed an octet
Third period and higher elements can do this
E.g., Al, Si, P, S, Cl, As, Br, Xe, etc.
d-orbitals can accommodate extra electrons
PCl5
XeF2
Practice
SCl6
XeF4
Properties of ionic compounds
Crystalline state
Composed of clusters of ions
Forms crystal lattice or atomic network
Produces geometric shapes b/c of the arrangement of the ions in space
Solubility
Ionic compounds are more soluble in polar solvents than non-polar solvents
Solvent dipoles orient themselves surrounding the ions (cations & anions).
This renders the inter-ionic force weaker and pulls away some ions into the solution
Formation of covalent compound
Formed when a pair of electrons is shared by between atoms (same
or different) to form stable structures (octet structure).
Compounds containing these bonds are called covalent compounds.
e 1e e
Atom # 1 1e Atom # 2
donate 1 electron donate 1 electron
Achieve octet
electron arrangement
e
+
e Ho + ×H
1 1 1s1 1s1
Single
covalent bond
H o× H or H - H
2 2
oo x x oo x x
o x o
o Fo + x F x o F ox F x
x
oo x x oo x x
After sharing
1212s22p5 1212s22p6
Neon structure
xx xx
Ho + x Cl xx H x Cl xx
o
xx xx
1s1 1212s22p63s23p5
H H
xo xo
H
x x x
H o C o H x N o H x ox
x O o
ox xo x
x H
H H
xx
Double covalent bond Triple covalent bond
There are many compounds where more than one Lewis structures
can be possible e.g., N2O, HN3, CO2 etc.: only one exists.
Paramagnetism of Oxygen
O: 2s22s22p4 O: 2s22s22p4
O: 2s22s22px22py12pz1 O: 2s22s22px22py12pz1
Potential Energy Diagram of Covalent Bond
Coordination covalent bond
A coordinate bond (also called a dative covalent bond) is a covalent bond (a
shared pair of electrons) in which both shared electron pair come from one
atom.
A coordinate covalent bond is usually shown with an arrow.
H F H F H F
ox oo ox oo ox oo
+ or
x x o x x o x o
H o N x B o F H o N x B o F H o N B o F
xo oo xo oo xo oo
H F H F H F
Donor atom Acceptor atom
N F
Some donor atoms: F-, OH- etc. How many bonds are there in these compounds?
Acceptor atoms: H+, AlBr3 etc. 1. H2SO4
2. H3PO4
3. NH4Cl
4. POCl3
Valence bond theory
Valence bond theory
Valence bond theory
Valence bond theory
Valence bond theory
Valence bond theory
Heitler-London Theory:
Are we poly-symmetric?
bond
bond
bond
bond
bond
Example
H2 molecule
HCl molecule
N2 molecule
N2 molecule
LIMITATIONS OF VALENCE BOND THEORY
Other consideration
Anti-bonding
Anti-bonding
Bonding
Bonding
The σ bond
Electron density is
between the nuclei of
the overlapping atoms
The π bond
Electron
densities are
above and below
the nuclei of the
bonding atoms
Only p orbitals
can form pi
bonds!
Sigma and Pi Bonds
B: 1s22s22p1 (monovalent)
C:1s22s22p2 (divalent)
They use different hybrid bonds to make bond with other atoms
Hybridization
hybridization) is the concept of mixing atomic orbitals into new hybrid
orbitals (with different energies, shapes, etc., than the component atomic
orbitals) suitable for the pairing of electrons to form chemical bonds
Promotion & Hybridization
p
s
p
s
No orbitals are “lost” due to merging – if you blend one s orbital and
one p orbital you will end up with two hybrid orbitals!
Hybridization
Continued
109o
sp2 Hybridization in BF3
_ _ _
↓ 2p1 Unhybridized Boron
2s2
_ _ _
sp2 sp2 sp2 Hybridized Boron
3 sp2 orbitals needed
to form 3 sigma bonds
sp Hybridization in BeCl2
_ _ _
↓ 2p Unhybridized Be
2s2
• For BeCl2, 2 hybrid orbitals are needed, so 2 atomic orbitals are
required as follows: (s + p ) = sp
_ _
sp sp Hybridized Be
Once hybridization has occurred – hybridized
orbitals are ready to bond – just like regular
orbitals
promote
3s 3p 3d 3s 3p 3d
unhybridized P atom vacant d orbitals
P = [Ne]3s23p3 hybridize
Ba
F
F
Be degenerate
F orbitals
Ba (all EQUAL)
Trigonal bipyramidal
Resonance structures
When structures can be written in more than one way
O3
+
The bonding and nonbonding electron pairs (lone pairs) around a given atom are
positioned as far apart as possible.
Lone pair-lone pair repulsion
bond pair-lone pair repulsion
bond pair- bond pair repulsion
Steps for Predicting Molecular Structure Using the VSEPR
Model
1. Draw the Lewis structure for the molecule.
2. Count the electron pairs and arrange them in the way
that minimizes repulsion (that is, put the lone pairs as
far apart as possible).
3. Determine the positions of the atoms from the way the
electron pairs are shared.
4. Determine the name of the molecular structure from the
positions of the atoms.
Which compound contains both
ionic and covalent bonds?
1. HBr For better preparation, read by heart
Answers of the Previous years questions (must)
2. CBr4 Books (S Haider)
Slides (least priority)
3. NaBr
4. NaOH
Metallic Bonding
Remember: in ionic bonds some atoms want e- and some don’t in covalent bonds, all atoms share e- in
metals, no one atom wants the e-
H2 bond
a weak bond between two molecules resulting from an electrostatic attraction
between a proton in one molecule and an electronegative atom in the other.
van der Waal’s force
weak, short-range electrostatic attractive forces between uncharged molecules, arising from
the interaction of permanent or transient electric dipole moments.
The magnitude of this force increases with increase in the number of electrons per molecule
It causes the inert gases and the halogens to become liquid and solid when the temp is lowered
London force
The London dispersion force is the weakest intermolecular force.
The London dispersion force is a temporary attractive force that results when the electrons in
two adjacent atoms occupy positions that make the atoms form temporary dipoles.
This force is sometimes called an induced dipole-induced dipole attraction.
Bond strength
Formula weight, g/mol
Boiling point (oC)
End
Valence bond and molecular orbital theories
Valence bond and molecular orbital theories are used to explain chemical bonding.
Two atoms that have unpaired electrons in their orbitals can overlap to give rise to
a chemical bond.
A sigma bond (σ) forms when two atomic orbitals overlap between the nuclei of
two atoms (also known as the internuclear axis).
Pi bonds (π) occur when two atomic orbitals overlap outside of the space between
the nuclei (outside of the internuclear axis).
The strongest bonds form with maximum overlap between orbitals.
Ionic Compound: A compound resulting from a positive ion (usually a metal) combining
with a negative ion (usually a non-metal).
Example: M+ + X- MX
Coordination covalent bond: Shared pair of electrons come from one atom shared by both
nuclei.
Example
Metallic bond
Rules for Lewis structures of
molecules
1. Write out valence electrons for each atom Example
2. Connect lone electrons because lone electrons
are destabilizing H2
1. Become two shared electrons Duet rule
1. Called a “bond”
F2
3. Check to see if octet rule is satisfied Octet rule
1. Recall electron configuration resembling noble gas
1. In other words, there must be 8 electrons (bonded or O2
non-bonded) around atom N2
1. Non-bonded electron-pair
1. Called “lone pair”
Bond: Force that holds groups of two or more atoms together and makes the
atoms function as a unit.
Example: H-O-H
Symmetrical Unsymmetrical
distribution distribution
+ -
electrons
Nucleus
Faster Reactivity
because ionic compounds exist as ion in aqueous solutions, therefore,
no bond is to be broken, only few bonds are formed.
Solubility
Ionic compounds are more soluble in polar solvents than non-polar solvents
Solvent dipoles orient themselves surrounding the ions (cations & anions).
This renders the inter-ionic force weaker and pulls away some ions into the solution
+ - + -
Solution
- + - +
Crystallization
+ - + -
- + - +