Safety Engineering and Disaster Risk

Management

Chapter 9
Safety Management

Er. Umesh Sukamani

Khwopa Engineering College
 Safety Management
Safety management is commonly understood as
applying a set of principles, framework, processes and
measures to prevent accidents, injuries and other
adverse consequences that may be caused by using a
service or a product.
It is that function which exists to assist managers in better
discharging their responsibilities for operational system
design and implementation through either the prediction
of system’s deficiencies before errors occur or the
identification and correction of system’s deficiencies by
professional analysis of safety occurrences.
Safety management implies a systematic approach to
managing safety, including the necessary organisational
structure, accountabilities, policies and procedures.

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 Safety Management
Definition
Safety management is an organisational function,
which ensures that all safety risks have been
identified, assessed and satisfactorily mitigated.

Objective
The objective of safety management in the industry is to
prevent human injury or loss of life, and to avoid damage
to the environment and to property.

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 Safety Management
In a typical workplace, unbiased health and safety
management also covers the employers, just as it covers
the employees.
Employers are required to provide safe workplace to
its constituents while employees are expected to
adhere to the rules and regulations brought about and
introduced during work orientation.
This is usually discussed by a Compensation and Benefits
Specialist or anybody from the Human Resource Group.
There’s supposed to be a designated health and safety
manager assigned to handle relevant issues concerning
the workplace conditions as explained in workplace
safety certification.
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 Role of Employers
 Keep the employees informed of the hazards likely to occur in the
workplace during health and safety jobs training, precautionary labels,
emergency alarms, color codes, chemical information sheets, and similar
stuff.
 Bookkeeping and safeguard of medical records related to injuries and
illnesses in case an incident affecting an employee happens in the work
area where medical history of the patient will immediately become a
need.
 Perform exams and other medical screening procedures to ensure
maximum health of all employees which can be detrimental if there are
illnesses left unchecked and can likely harm the majority.
 Update bulletins of citations, injuries and illness records, and a poster
of OSHA in the company’s visible walls where the majority, if not all of
the employees will have the capability to read and review.
 Immediately inform OSHA in the first 8 hours in case a workplace
accident happens, when there is death, or when there are three or more
employees sent to hospitals for emergency as decided by the company
resident doctor or nurse.
 Avoid retaliation or discrimination of employees in case they attempt
or they actually use their right against the company which is likely within
5 or under the discretion of the health and safety manager. 9/19/2018
 9.1. Role of Employees
 As a worker, you should report work-related cases resulting in injury
and illnesses in case your employer fails or declines to do so. The
process has it that workers can inform OSHA anytime in case something
hazardous happened in the workplace.
 In case of punishment or discrimination from the employer, it is the
employee’s responsibility to immediately inform OSHA so necessary
sanction will be imposed of after the issue is accordingly dealt with.
 It is an employee’s responsibility to assess working conditions as to
whether the workplace is unsafe and unhealthy or otherwise, so
necessary actions can be performed by OSHA in order to protect the
safety and the common good of the majority.
 The employee has the responsibility of confirming whether the
company he or she is engaged with have ever been inspected by
OSHA, and if it isn’t, he or she can ask how likely can it be done in
order to promote workplace health and safety.
 An employee has the responsibility to know Standard Industrial
Classification (SIC) Code of the company so as to eventually learn and
understand the most common industry hazard cited so far.
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 9.2. Role of Supervisors
Enforce Safe Work Practices:

Correct Unsafe Conditions:

Prevent Lingering Unsafe or Unhealthful Workplace

Conditions or Hazards:

Investigate Workplace Accidents:

Promote Quick Return to Work:

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 Role of Supervisors
Enforce Safe Work Practices:
 It's the supervisors responsibility to enforce safe work practices and procedures;
failure to do so is an invitation for accidents to occur. Workers must be
encouraged to identify unsafe or unhealthful workplace conditions or hazards
and absolutely not be disciplined for doing so!
Correct Unsafe Conditions:
 Supervisors' must take immediate steps to correct unsafe or unhealthful
workplace conditions or hazards within their authority and ability to do so.
When an unsafe or unhealthful workplace condition or hazard cannot be
immediately corrected, the supervisor must take temporary precautionary
measures. Supervisors must follow-up to ensure that corrective measures are
completed in a timely manner to address the hazard.
Prevent Lingering Unsafe or Unhealthful Workplace Conditions or Hazards:
 Many near miss incidents are caused by unsafe or unhealthful workplace
conditions or hazards. It's the supervisor's responsibility to train and
periodically remind employees of what to look for and how to correct or report
unsafe conditions or hazards. If a hazard is identified, the supervisor must act.
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 Role of Supervisors
Investigate Workplace Accidents:
 Supervisors are responsible for conducting accident investigations and for
ensuring that all occupationally injured employees report to the Occupational
Medical Service (OMS) immediately. Note: NIH Policy requires all injuries,
including those sustained by contractors, to be reported to OMS. OMS works
with the pision of Occupational Health and Safety to identify hazardous
conditions leading to injuries. The OMS will document and treat any acute
injuries. All facts and opinions regarding the cause of the accident must be
compiled and documented on the Workers Compensation Forms (CA-1 or CA-
2). Supervisors must review the circumstances, sign and submit the forms within
48 hours.
Promote Quick Return to Work:
 Employees must be encouraged to return to work as soon as possible. The longer
an employee is away from work, the less likely he or she will actually return.
When possible, light or limited duties should be identified and considered,
to assist in returning the employee to work.

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 MOTIVATION
 Motivation is an important management tool to harmonize and
achieve goals of individuals and organizations.
 It induces people for higher productivity. Resources are
efficiently utilized. Employee turnover and absenteeism are
reduced. Change can be effectively managed if employees
are motivated.
 According to Richard M. Steers:
 Motivation energies, directs and sustains human behavior: a force that
causes people to behave in certain ways and that is goal directed.
 According to James Stoner
 Motivation refers to factors that cause, channel and sustain an
individual's behavior.
 According to Koontz and Weihrich
 Motivation is to do those things which satisfy drives and desires and
induce the subordinates to act in a desired manner.
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 MOTIVATION
 Types of motivation
 Intrinsic motivation ( self motivated, No need of external thing to
motivate)
 Extrinsic motivation ( need of external thing to motivate)

 Motivation Process
 Needs
 Wants
 Tension
 Action
 Satisfaction

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 MOTIVATION
Theories of motivation
 Many theories have been propounded about motivation.
Among them, two important theories are:
Hierarchy of needs theory (Abraham Maslow)
Duel Factor theory (Frederick Herzberg)
The expectancy theory ( The Vroom theory)
Theory X and Theory Y

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 MOTIVATION
Maslow's theory of Hierarchy of Needs
This theory is based on two principles:
Progressive principle
Needs motivate people. There is a hierarchy of needs. They
range from the most pressing (lower order needs) to the least
pressing (higher order needs).
People satisfy most pressing needs first. A person progresses
step - by step up the need hierarchy (progressive principle).
Deficit Principle
Substantially satisfied needs do not motivate. Only the
unsatisfied needs influence behavior (Deficit Principle).
The strength of the need and the degree of satisfaction
needed are not rigid.
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 MOTIVATION
The needs have been classified in hierarchy as follows:
 Physiological
Food, shelter
 Security
Protection, stability
 Social
Belongingness, friendship
 Esteem
Status, prestige
 Self - Actualization
Creativity, self development

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 MOTIVATION
Implications of Maslow's Theory
Maslow 's hierarchy of needs theory is a useful guide
for understanding motivation. It is simple and
practical. However, the theory has the following
weaknesses:
Research has failed to verify the deficit and progressive
principles of the theory.
People are motivated not only by needs but also by
perceptions, expectations, experience etc.
Multiplicity of needs rather than a single need motivate
people
Situational factors have been neglected.

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 MOTIVATION
2. Herzberg's Duel Factor Theory (Hygiene Theory)
 Herzberg developed duel factor theory of work motivation. The factors are:
 Maintenance or Hygiene factors
 Presence of these factors do not produce motivation. They are dis-satisfiers.
 The absence of these factors causes dissatisfaction. They are necessary to avoid
dissatisfaction. These factors relate to job context. They are:
 Company policy and administration
 Technical supervision
 Interpersonal relations with superiors, peers and subordinates.
 Salary, job security, personal life, work conditions, status
 Motivational factors
 These factors called "satisfiers or motivators"
 Cause high levels of motivation and job satisfaction when present.
 Absence of these factors does not lead to dissatisfaction. These factors relate to job-
content. They consist of:
 Achievement
 Recognition
 Advancement
 The work itself
 The possibility of personal growth
16  Responsibility.
 MOTIVATION
3. The expectancy Theory ( The Vroom Theory)
This theory basically believes on “ Everything that is done
in this world is done in hope “.
People’s motivation toward doing anything will be determined
by the value they place on the outcome of their effort
(whether positive) negative, multiplied by the confidence they
have.
Force = valence x expectancy
Where,
 Force is the strength of a person’s motivation
 Valence is the strength of an individual’s performance for
an outcome
 Expectancy is the probability of desired outcome

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 MOTIVATION
4. Theory X and Theory Y
 This theory was propounded by Douglas McGregor. It is based
on assumptions. The two sets of assumptions are :
Theory X
 This theory represents the traditional approach towards work and workers. The assumptions are:
 Man is lazy. He dislikes work and tends to avoid it.
 Man needs to be coerced, controlled and threatened to get the job done.
 Man avoids responsibility. He seeks formal direction by superiors.
 Man seeks security above all. He displays little ambition and initiative.
 Man has little capacity for creativity in solving problems.
 This type of man is pessimistic, static, rigid and control oriented. It represents negative view of
people. Leaders need to autocratic.

Theory Y
 This theory represents the new approach towards work and workers. The assumptions are:
o Man views work as a natural activity like play or rest.
o Man will exercise self direction and self control when committed to objectives. Self direction
is better than external control.
o The average man can learn to accept and seek responsibility. Man wants to learn new things
for self development.
o Human beings have unlimited potential.
o Greater freedom in doing work and challenging work provide long lasting incentives.
o This type of man is optimistic, dynamic and flexible. It emphasizes self control and direction.
He presents a positive view of people. Leaders need to be democratic.

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 Techniques of Employee MOTIVATION
 Creative a Positive Work Environment
 Motivate employees by giving them an upbeat, positive work environment. Encourage
teamwork and idea-sharing, and make sure staffers have the tools and knowledge to perform
their jobs well. Be available when employees need you to be a sounding board or a dispute
mediator. Eliminate conflict as it arises, and give employees freedom to work independently
when appropriate.
 Set Goals
 Help employees become self-motivated by helping them establish professional goals and
objectives. Not only does this give employees something to strive for, but your business
benefits when goals are tied to corporate contributions. Make sure goals are reasonable and
achievable so employees don’t get discouraged. Encourage them when they hit notable
milestones.
 Provide Incentives
 Increase motivation by providing incentives to work toward. You can create individual
incentives for each employee or team incentives to motivate employees as a group. Financial
incentives can include cash prizes, gift cards or restaurant gift certificates. Nonfinancial
incentives can include extra vacation days, compressed work weeks or choice office space or
parking spots.
 Recognize Achievements
 Celebrate employee achievements through employee-of-the-month or star performer awards.
Make a big deal out of accomplishments by celebrating at staff meetings. Print certificates or
19 engrave plaques, issue a press release or post a notice on your company website. Recognize
team accomplishments as well as individual efforts.
 MOTIVATION
 Share Profits
 Motivate employees with the incentive of a profit-sharing program. In this way,
employees increase their earnings when they help you increase yours. This approach
simultaneously promotes collective goal-setting and teamwork. It also gives
employees a sense of pride in ownership and can improve performance and reduce
turnover as well as raise morale.
 Solicit Employee Input
 Regularly survey employees about their levels of satisfaction. You can conduct
anonymous polls or hire an independent party to conduct a formal focus group. This
will help you catch potential morale breakers before they get out of hand. Soliciting
employee input also shows staffers that you care about their opinions and want to
continually improve working conditions.
 Provide Professional Enrichment
 Encourage employees to continue their education or participate in industry
organizations. Provide tuition reimbursement or send employees to skills workshops
and seminars. If an employee is motivated to an upward career path, offer mentoring
and job shadowing opportunities to keep them focused. Promote from within
whenever possible, and create opportunities to help employees develop from a
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professional standpoint.
 9.4 Stress Management
 Stress is a normal psychological and physical reaction to the
demands of life. A small amount of stress can be good,
motivating you to perform well. But multiple challenges
daily, such as sitting in traffic, meeting deadlines and paying
bills, can push you beyond your ability to cope.

 Your brain comes hard-wired with an alarm system for your

protection. When your brain perceives a threat, it signals your
body to release a burst of hormones that increase your heart
rate and raise your blood pressure. This "fight-or-flight"
response fuels you to deal with the threat.

 Once the threat is gone, your body is meant to return to a

normal, relaxed state. Unfortunately, the nonstop complications
of modern life mean that some people's alarm systems rarely
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shut off.
 9.4 Stress Management
 Stress management refers to the wide spectrum of techniques
and psychotherapies aimed at controlling a person's levels
of stress, especially chronic stress, usually for the purpose of
improving everyday functioning.
 The term 'stress' refers only to a stress with significant negative
consequences, or distress in the terminology advocated by Hans
Selye, rather than what he calls eustress, a stress whose
consequences are helpful or otherwise positive.
 Stress produces numerous physical and mental symptoms which
vary according to each individual's situational factors. These can
include physical health decline as well as depression.
 The process of stress management is named as one of the keys
to a happy and successful life in modern society. Although life
provides numerous demands that can prove difficult to handle,
stress management provides a number of ways to manage anxiety
and maintain overall well-being.
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 9.4 Stress Management

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 9.4 Stress Management
Workplace stress is a health and safety issue and comes
under the OHS Act. This means the University through its
managers and supervisors, is required to prevent and
address workplace stress using a risk management
framework.

In applying a risk management framework it is

important to appreciate that both organisational and
individual level interventions to address the causes of
psychological injury are generally more effective than
approaches that solely focus on the staff member.

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 9.4 Stress Management
 Staff member-focussed approaches such as counselling,
relaxation training, time management skills and stress
management training can assist staff to develop greater
resilience to work-related stress or help them better deal with
personal stressors.
 Stress management programs teach workers about the
nature and sources of stress, the effects of stress on health,
and personal skills to reduce stress. This training may
rapidly reduce stress symptoms such as anxiety and sleep
disturbances; it also has the advantage of being
inexpensive and easy to implement.
 However these approaches do little to address the
organisational sources of work-related stress. As such they
are less likely to produce sustainable prevention outcomes,
address the root causes of stress or result in improvements
25 in organisational performance.
 9.4 Stress Management
 Organisational Stress Management focuses improve
working conditions or climate. This approach is the most
direct way to reduce stress at work. It involves the
identification of stressful aspects of work and the design of
strategies to reduce or eliminate the identified stressors.
 The advantage of this approach is that it deals directly
with the root causes of stress at work and produces the
best results. However, managers are sometimes
uncomfortable with this approach because it can involve
changes in work routines or production schedules, or
changes in the organisational structure.
 Approaches developed within a framework for continuous
improvement, rather than with an expectation of dramatic and
uniformly positive impact, are also recommended.
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 9.4 Stress Management

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 9.4 Stress Management
 The expectation under the OHS Act is that managers will
do everything practicable to prevent injury through
workplace stress.
 This should occur when a new process or job is introduced.
As well as considering the physical hazards such as manual
handling or ergonomics, the psychological hazards should be
considered.
 Work demands are the easiest to identify. Work demand risk
factors such as pace of work and work variety are more easily
recognised compared to more esoteric support risk factors
such as respect and management culture. It may be similarly
difficult to see how drivers such as difficult clients are offset
positively or negatively by support from managers and other
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team members.
 9.4 Stress Management
 Nevertheless experienced, competent managers will have
an understanding of the work climate interacts with the
organisation of the work.
 The recommended preventative approach to risk management
of stress involves four steps:
 Identifying the sources of potential harm to staff health and
wellbeing
 Systematically assessing the risk of staff being harmed
 Developing and implementing actions to:
 address the workplace factors that present a risk of psychological
injury
 minimise the impact of stress on staff through supportive
management and promoting staff health and wellbeing
 Monitor and review the implementation and effectiveness of
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the interventions to ensure continuous improvement.
 How can managers deal with workplace stress?
Look The first step is about paying attention to your staff, noticing any changes in
their usual behaviour or relationships.
It may be also worthwhile reviewing leave use, both recreation and sick
leave as well as over-time or time in lieu.
Listen Listen to what staff are saying: are there more complaints or excuses than
unusual?
Has the level of conflict or sensitivity increased? How much impact is the
stress having?
Think Think about what you have observed and how that relates to the factors that
typically lead to workplace stress. Focus on the obvious causes but do not
ignore the full range of possibilities.
Be honest with yourself: what is my contribution?
If you believe the stress is not work related, how is work aggravating the
situation?
Discuss If appropriate, discuss the issues with your staff individually and/or as a
group.
If you need assistance, talk to your Human Resources Partner first
Act Put into place a plan to reduce, offset, rebalance, or better manage the stress.
30 This is preferably done in consultation with staff.
 9.6 Consideration of human errors
Just as one should take human physical, physiological,
and psychological factor strengths and limitations into
account during the design process, one should also take
human factor strengths and limitations into account when
assessing the contribution of the "human element" in
accident analysis.
One must distinguish between the concepts of "human
error" and "human nature." Human nature is the
"given" and relatively unchangeable part of
humanness. Human error can only be a valid concept
under certain specific conditions.

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 9.6 Consideration of human errors
 This concept is at the core of human factors engineering. It
recognizes that humans are complex creatures having not
only a wide range of capabilities but also a corresponding
wide range of limitations. Humans are bound by specific
innate characteristics that are not subject to significant change,
which dictate specific behavior under particular
circumstances. Such behavior must be considered as part of
human nature and not mislabeled as human error.

 "Human error" may result from a combination of human

nature, random error, design induced human error,
and true human error.

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 9.6 Consideration of human errors
Human Error" vs. "Random Error"
 True human error must be distinguished from "random error,"
a type of error related to "human nature."
 Random errors committed by system operators are non-
predictable by both system designers and operators. An
example of a random error would be the reflex action that
causes a wrong control to be activated as the result of an
unexpected mosquito bite (Hammer, 1991).
 Random errors can also involve improbable but "normal"
extremes of human variation. For example, even persons who
are well trained and have repeatedly used a well-designed
system will occasionally make inadvertent errors related to
rare and unintended (and uncontrollable) variations in required
hand-eye coordination.
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 9.6 Consideration of human errors
"Human Error" vs. "Design Induced Human Error"
 "A major cause of [human] error is the error built in to the system during its
development by inappropriate design practices" (Meister, 1971).
 An axiom of human factors engineering states that, "How a system is
designed will dictate how it can and will be used." True human error must
be distinguished from "design induced human error" where some
(engineering or administrative) aspect of the system design (such as a lack of
safety features, the presence of reasonably anticipated operator distraction
or overload, or the presence of excessive or contradictory system demands)
predisposes such error; that is, where the system operator is "set up" to
make the error by some design aspect of the system.
 Such "errors," if they can rightfully be called errors at all, are predictable and
therefore preventable through re-design. Design induced human errors can be
viewed as procedural deviations that reasonable foresight should have anticipated
as likely to occur under the design conditions created by system designers or
managers. Reasonably discoverable foreknowledge that such errors might
potentially occur implies a primary responsibility for such errors by those who
failed to reasonably foresee them to the extent that such error could have been
34 eliminated or minimized at the design (or administrative planning) stage of
system development.
 9.6 Consideration of human errors
True Human Error
 Although human error can be simply defined as "any person's
actions that are inconsistent with established behavioral
patterns considered to be normal or that differ from prescribed
procedures" (Hammer, 1991), if culpability is to be assigned to
such error, the "established behavioral patterns" (considered
"normal" by whom?) and "prescribed procedures" must be
reasonable under the circumstances.
 True human error is most properly defined as an action
that would not have been committed (or an action that
would not have been omitted) by ordinary, reasonably
prudent persons under the same or similar circumstances,
while taking common human factor limitations into
account, and after eliminating other forms of "human
error" from consideration.
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 9.6 Consideration of human errors
True Human Error
 True human error may be error that is deemed to be inconsistent
with well established behavioral patterns or that differs from well
established prescribed procedures after
 (a) it has been determined that system designers or managers did not fail
to reasonably anticipate or foresee such (or similar) error,
 (b) the system in which the error takes place has been designed to
minimize such errors, and
 (c) persons involved are well informed (properly and adequately trained).

Such training must include not only an understanding of the full nature
(consequences) of potential errors and the proper procedure to avoid them, but it
must also assure the system demands imposed on such persons that might detract
from correct performance have also been taken into account and eliminated, or at
least minimized and deemed acceptable by applying all readily available safety
or human factors engineering or administrative means. Otherwise, such
distractions or system features that fall short of reasonable system design or
administrative standards must be recognized as mitigating factors to the
designation of true human error.
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 9.6 Consideration of human errors
True Human Error
 True human error can only be said to occur when the system in
which it takes place has been well engineered (according to the
basic principles and reasonable application of safety engineering
and human factors engineering) and the demands imposed on
adequately trained system operators are realistic in relation to
human factor (human nature) capabilities and limitations of such
persons. Only under such circumstances is the system operator truly
free to choose his or her actions.
 One method that can be useful to distinguish between true human
error and other forms of alleged human error is to ask this question:
If a thousand reasonably prudent persons were placed in the
same or similar circumstances, would a significant number
make the same or similar error? If so, one's search for
causation must go beyond the apparent identification of simple
human error.
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 9.6 Consideration of human errors
"Dynamic" vs. "Static" Human Error
 "Static" human error can be thought of as error that
occurs under relatively quiescent conditions; that is, it is
error made while one has almost unlimited time to focus
on an issue with relatively little distraction. It is, in effect,
error made while having time to "put your feet up on your
desk" and contemplate.
 "Dynamic" human error, on the other hand, is error made "in
an instant" when related conditions or activities involve
significant complexity and distraction. That is, dynamic
human error is error made in "the heat of battle" or while
engaged in some form of dynamic activity.

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 9.6 Consideration of human errors
"Primary" Human Error vs. "Incidental" Human Error
 "Primary" human error can be thought of as error made by those who
have a primary assigned or special responsibility and the special expertise
to focus on the subject matter of the error. An "incidental" human error, in
contrast, is error made by those who have a secondary or oversight
responsibility or lack the special expertise to focus on the same issue.
 Thus, a "primary" error made by a professional, if made by a
layman, would be an "incidental" error; a "primary" error made by
a "teacher," if made by a student, would be an "incidental" error; a
"primary" error made by top management regarding the
establishment of adequate work procedures, if made by a worker in
the absence of such established procedures and adequate training,
would be an "incidental" error; and failure to incorporate a safety
feature into a particular system design would be a "primary" error
on the part of the system designer, while not being able to compensate
for or cope with the lack of such a safety feature on the part of a
system operator, would at best be called an "incidental" error.
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