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MEASUREMENT AND
INSTRUMENTATION
SYSTEM
Chapter 1
BASIC
MEASUREMENT
CONCEPTS
Standard Units
Fundamental Quantity…
Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Abbre.
Length l meter m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
Temperature T Kelvin oK
charge Q coulomb C
resistance R Ohm Ω
capacitance C farad F
inductance L hendry H
4
INTRODUCTION
Instrumentation is a technology of measurement
which serves sciences, engineering, medicine and
etc.
e = Yn – Xn
where:
e = absolute error.
Yn = expected value.
Xn = measured value
12
Error in Measurement
to express error in percentage
e
% error = (100)
Yn
Yn X n
Relative accuracy, A 1
Yn
% Accuracy, a = 100% - % error
= A 100
Xn Xn
Precision, P = 1 Xn
Precision = 1 - Xn - Xn
Xn
where
Xn = the value of the nth measurement
Xn = the average of the set of n measurements
Example 1.1
So, the 6th reading is more precise, mean that more close to the
average value.
Exercise
Solution
The limiting error for the power = 2.143% + 2.813%
= 4.956%
25
TYPES OF STATIC ERROR
1) Gross Error
cause by human mistakes in reading/using instruments
may also occur due to incorrect adjustment of the instrument
and the computational mistakes
cannot be treated mathematically
cannot eliminate but can minimize
Eg: Improper use of an instrument.
This error can be minimized by taking proper care in reading
x1 x 2 x 3 x n n
xi
x
n i 1 n
n = total number of piece of data
xn = the value of the nth measurement
xi = set of number
2) Deviation
the difference between each piece of data and
arithmetic mean
d n xn x
* Note
dtot d1 d 2 d n 0
algebraic sum of deviation
3) Average deviation (D)
- precision of a measuring instrument
- high D low precision
- low D high precision
d1 d 2 d n
D
n
4) Standard deviation
the degree to which the value vary about the
average value
n n n
xi x d i
2 2 2
i d
S i 1
i 1
for n 30 S i 1
for n 30
n 1 n 1 n
Example 1-4
For the following data compute
(a) The arithmetic mean (49.9)
(b) The deviation of each value (0.2,-0.2,-
0.3,0.3)
(c) The algebraic sum of the deviation (0)
(d) The average deviation (0.25)
(e) The standard deviation (0.294)
x1= 50.1
x2= 49.7
x3= 49.6
x4= 50.2
Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic – measuring a varying process condition.
Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to
changes in the measured variables due to such
things as mass, thermal capacitance, fluid
capacitance or electrical capacitance.
Pure delay in time is often encountered where the
instrument waits for some reaction to take place.
Such industrial instruments are nearly always used
for measuring quantities that fluctuate with time.
Therefore, the dynamic and transient behavior of the
instrument is important.
Dynamic Characteristics
The dynamic performance characteristics of
an instrument are:
Speed of response- The rapidity with which an
instrument responds changes in measured
quantity.
Dynamic error-The difference between the true
and measured value with no static error.
Lag – delay in the response of an instrument to
changes in the measured variable.
Fidelity – the degree to which an instrument
indicates the changes in the measured variable
without dynamic error (faithful reproduction).
Dynamic Characteristics
Primary Std
Maintained at the National Std Lab (different for every country)
Each lab has its own secondary std which are periodically checked
and certified by the National Std Lab.
For example, in Malaysia, this function is carried out by SIRIM.
Standard
Secondary Standard
Secondary standards are basic reference standards used by
measurement and calibration laboratories in industries.
Each industry has its own secondary standard.
Working Std
Used to check and calibrate lab instrument for accuracy and
performance.
For example, manufacturers of electronic components such as
capacitors, resistors and many more use a standard called a
working standard for checking the component values being
manufactured.
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT
• Basic elements of an electronics instrument
Signal Indicating
Transducer Modifier Device
1) Transducer
- convert a non electrical signal into an electrical signal
- e.g: a pressure sensor detect pressure and convert it to
electricity for display at a remote gauge.
2) Signal modifier
- convert input signal into a suitable signal for the indicating
device
3) Indicating device
- indicates the value of quantity being measure
INSTRUMENT APPLICATION GUIDE
Analog Multimeter
INSTRUMENT APPLICATION GUIDE
Digital Multimeter
ANALOGUE METER
Accurate measurement of current and
potential difference(voltage) is needed in all
branches of electricity and their applications,
for example in television, radio
telecommunications, dynamos and motors.
The most widely used commercial meter is
the moving coil type. Basically, it consists of
(a) A rectangular coil with many turns
(b) A powerful radial magnetic field between
curved pole pieces N and S and a soft iron cylinder
(c) Springs to control the angle of rotation of the
coil
(d) A uniform (linear) scale for measuring the
current.
The moving coil instrument is commonly used
in voltmeters, ammeters and ohmmeters. It
responds only to direct current. It is used in
rectifier- type instruments to measure
alternating current and voltage There are two
types of moving coil instruments
i. Electrodynamometer type
ii. Permanent magnet type
Electrodynamometer)
Applications Of P.m.m.c
In the measurement of direct currents and voltage
In d.c galvanometers to defect small currents.
In ballistic galvanometers used mainly for measuring
changes of magnetic flux linkages.
MOVING IRON MOVEMENT
REFER TO FIGURE 4:
ELECTRO MAGNETIC COIL(2):CARRIES AN ALTERNATING OR
DIRECT CURRENT PROPORTIONAL TO THE QUANTITY OF
ELECTRICITY TO BE MEASURED AND PRODUCES A MAGNETIC FIELD
DEPENDING UPON THE TYPE OF CURRENT
BOTH THE FIXED IRON VANE (3) AND MOVING IRON VANE(4)
PRODUCE SIMILAR TYPE OF POLES AT THEIR ENDS DUE TO THE
MAGNETIC FIELD. HENCE MAGNETIC REPULSION TAKES PLACE AND
(4) MOVES AWAY FROM THE (3).
AS (4) IS FIXED TO SPINDLE(5), IT DEFLECTS.
THE POINTER(7) ATTACHED TO (5) MOVES OVER THE
GRADUATED SCALE(8)
CONTROL SPRING(6) OFFERS CONTROL TORQUE. THE SHAPE OF
(3) ENABLES THE TORQUE DEVELOPED TO BE PROPORTIONAL TO
THE CURRENT IN THE COIL HENCE THE SCALE IS MORE OR LESS
UNIFORM
62
FIGURE 4 = MOVING IRON MOVEMENT
GRADUATED SCALE
CONTROL SPRING
SPINDLE
MOVING IRON VANE
POINTER
FIXED IRON VANE
ELECTRO MAGNETIC
COIL
JEWEL BEARING
63
FIGURE 5: MOVING IRON MOVEMENT
The moving iron vane movement can be used to measure
both AC current and voltage. By changing the meter scale
calibration, the movement can be used to measure DC current
and voltage.
The moving iron vane meter operates on the principle of
magnetic repulsion between like poles.
The measured current flows through a field coil which
produces a magnetic field proportional to the magnitude of
current.
Suspended in this field are two iron vanes attached to a
pointer. The two iron vanes consist of one fixed and one
moveable vane.
The magnetic field produced by the current flow magnetizes
the two iron vanes with the same polarity regardless of the
direction of current through the coil.
Since like poles repel one another, the moving iron vane pulls
away from the fixed vane and moves the meter pointer.
This motion exerts a force against a spring.
The distance the moving iron vane will travel against
the spring depends on the strength of the magnetic
field.
The strength of the magnetic field depends on the
magnitude of current flow.
Advantages of Moving iron:
The various advantages of moving iron instrument are:
1. The instrument can be used for both a.c and d.c measurements.
2. As the torque to weight ratio is high, errors due to the friction are
very less.
3. A single type of moving element can cover the wide range hence
these instruments are cheaper than the other types of instruments.
4. There are no current carrying part in the moving parts system hence
these meters are extremely rugged and reliable.
5. These are capable of giving good accuracy. Modern moving iron
instruments have a d.c errorof 2% less.
Example 1:
A moving coil instrument has the following data
Number of turns=100
Width of the coil=20mm
Depth of the coil=30mm
Flux density in the gap=0.1Wb/m2
Calculate the deflecting torque when carrying a current of 10mA. Also
calculate the deflection, if the control spring constant is 2x10-6
Nm/degree.
Solution:
The deflection torque is given by
d = BxAxNxI
=0.1x30x10-3x20x10-3x100x10x10-3
=600x1000x0.1x10-9
=60x10-6 Nm
Summary (ANALOGUE METER)