NMB 34103

MEASUREMENT AND
INSTRUMENTATION
SYSTEM
 Chapter 1

BASIC
MEASUREMENT
CONCEPTS
 Standard Units
Fundamental Quantity…
Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Abbre.

Length l meter m

Mass m kilogram kg

Time t second s

Temperature T Kelvin oK

Electric current I Ampere A

3
Derived Quantity…
Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Abbre.

emf/ voltage V volt V

charge Q coulomb C

resistance R Ohm Ω

capacitance C farad F

inductance L hendry H

4
 INTRODUCTION
Instrumentation is a technology of measurement
which serves sciences, engineering, medicine and
etc.

Measurement is the process of determining the

amount, degree or capacity by comparison with the
accepted standards of the system units being used.

Instrument is a device for measure the value or

magnitude of a quantity or variable, such as
temperature, current, voltage, level, distance, angle
or pressure.

Electronic instrument is based on electrical or

electronic principles for its measurement functions.
FUNCTION AND ADVANTAGES
The 3 basic functions of instrumentation :-
 Indicating – visualize the process/operation
 For example, the deflection of pointer if a speedometer indicated
the speed of the automobile at that moment. A pressure gauge is
used for indicating pressure.
 Recording – observe and save the measurement
reading
 Controlling – to control measurement and process
Advantages of electronic measurement

 Different physical quantities can be converted into

electrical signal by transducers.
 Electrical signal can amplified, multiplexed, filtered
and measure easily.
 Electrical signal can be converted from A/D or D/A
signal.
 Electrical signals can be transmitted over long
distances by wire or radio link etc.
 Ability to monitor remote signal
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Performance Characteristics - characteristics that show
the performance of an instrument.
 Eg: accuracy, precision, resolution, sensitivity.

Allows users to select the most suitable instrument for a

specific measuring jobs.
Two basic characteristics :
 Static – measuring a constant process condition.

 Dynamic - measuring a varying process condition.

 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
1. Static Characteristics

i.Measurement – is the process of determining the

amount, degree or capacity by comparison with the
accepted standards of the system units being used.
ii.Instrument - a device for determining the value or
magnitude of a quantity or variable.
iii.Accuracy – the degree of exactness (closeness) of
measurement compared to the expected (desired) value.
iv.Resolution – the smallest change in a measurement
variable to which an instrument will respond.
v.Precision – a measure of consistency or repeatability of
measurement, i.e successive reading do not differ.
 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
1. Static Characteristics
vi.Sensitivity – ratio of change in the output (response) of
instrument to a change of input or measured variable.
vii.Expected value – the design value or the most probable
value that expect to obtain.
viii.Error – the deviation of the true value from the desired
value.
Error in Measurement
What is the meaning of error?
Error - The deviation of a reading or set of
readings from the expected value of the
measured variable.
Measurement always introduce error.
In order to minimize the error, use the
appropriate instrument and measuring
method.
Error can expressed as absolute error or
percentage error.
Error in Measurement
Absolute error.
Absolute error maybe defined as the difference
between the expected value of the variable
and the measured value of the variable, or

e = Yn – Xn
where:
e = absolute error.
Yn = expected value.
Xn = measured value

12
Error in Measurement
to express error in percentage
e
% error = (100)
Yn

we also derived relative accuracy, A;

Yn  X n
A  1
Yn
13
 ERROR IN MEASUREMENT

Yn  X n
Relative accuracy, A  1 
Yn
% Accuracy, a = 100% - % error
= A 100

Xn  Xn
Precision, P = 1  Xn

where X n - value of the nth measurement

X n- average set of measurement
The precision of a measurement is a quantitative or
numerical indication of the closeness with which a
repeated set of measurement of the same variable
agree with the average set of measurements.

Precision = 1 - Xn - Xn
Xn
where
Xn = the value of the nth measurement
Xn = the average of the set of n measurements
 Example 1.1

Given expected voltage value across a resistor is 80V.

The measurement is 79V. Calculate,
i. The absolute error
ii. The % of error
iii. The relative accuracy
iv. The % of accuracy
 Solution (Example 1.1)

Given that , expected value = 80V

measurement value = 79V

i. Absolute error, e = Y  X = 80V – 79V = 1V

n n
ii. % error = Yn  X n = 80  79 = 1.25%
100  100
Yn 80

iii. Relative accuracy, Yn  X n = 0.9875

A  1
Yn
iv. % accuracy, a = A x 100% = 0.9875 x 100%=98.75%
 Example 1.2
From the value in table 1.1, calculate the precision of 3th and
6th measurement? Compare which date is more precise.
Table 1.1
Solution No Xn

i.the average of measurement value: 1 98

2 101
98  101  ....  99 1005
Xn    100.5 3 102
10 10 4 97
ii.the 6th reading 5 101
Precision = 1  100  100.5  1  0.5  0.995 6 100
100.5 100.5 7 103
8 98
iii. the 3th reading
9 106
Precision= 1  102  100.5  1  1.5  0.985 10 99
100.5 100.5

So, the 6th reading is more precise, mean that more close to the
average value.
Exercise

The expected value of the voltage across a

resistor is 5.0 V. However, measurement yields
a value of 4.9 V. Calculate:
a) absolute error
b) % error
c) relative accuracy
d) % accuracy
 LIMITING ERROR

The accuracy of measuring instrument is

guaranteed within a certain percentage (%)
of full scale reading
E.g manufacturer may specify the instrument
to be accurate at 2 % with full scale
deflection.
This specification is called the limiting errors.
For reading less than full scale, the limiting
error increases.
It is important to obtain measurements as
close as possible to full scale.
 LIMITING ERROR (cont)
Example 1.3
Given a 600 V voltmeter with accuracy 2% full scale.
Calculate limiting error when the instrument is used to
measure the voltages:
i) 250V
ii) 450V
Solution
i) The magnitude of limiting error, 0.02 x 600 = 12V
Therefore, the limiting error for 250V = 12/250 x 100 =
4.8%
ii) The magnitude of limiting error, 0.02 x 600 = 12V
Therefore, the limiting error for 450V = 12/450 x 100 =
2.67%
 LIMITING ERROR (cont)
Example 1.7
Given for certain measurement, a limiting error for
voltmeter at 70V is 2.143% and a limiting error for ammeter
at 80mA is 2.813%. Determine the limiting error of the
power.

Solution
The limiting error for the power = 2.143% + 2.813%
= 4.956%

The limiting error for the power calculation is the sum of

individual limiting errors involved
Exercise

A voltmeter and an ammeter are to be

used to determine the power dissipated
in a resistor. Both instruments are
guaranteed to be accurate within ±1%
at full scale. If the voltmeter reads 80V
on its 150-V range and the ammeter
reads 70mA on its 100-mA range,
calculate the limiting error for the power
calculation.
Exercise
A voltmeter is accurate 98% of its full
scale reading.
i. If the voltmeter reads 200V on 500V
range, what is the absolute error?
ii. What is the percentage error of the
reading in (i).
Error in Measurement

There are various types of static error in

measurement:
Error generally categorized under the
following three major heading:
gross error/human error
systematic error
random error

25
 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR
1) Gross Error
 cause by human mistakes in reading/using instruments
 may also occur due to incorrect adjustment of the instrument
and the computational mistakes
 cannot be treated mathematically
 cannot eliminate but can minimize
 Eg: Improper use of an instrument.
 This error can be minimized by taking proper care in reading

and recording measurement parameter.

 In general, indicating instruments change ambient conditions to
some extent when connected into a complete circuit.
 Therefore, several readings (at three readings) must be taken to
minimize the effect of ambient condition changes.
 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR (cont)
2) Systematic Error
- due to shortcomings of the instrument (such as
defective or worn parts, ageing or effects of the
environment on the instrument), environmental effects
or observational errors.
In general, systematic errors can be subdivided into static
and dynamic errors.
 Static – caused by limitations of the measuring device or

the physical laws governing its behavior.

 Dynamic – caused by the instrument not responding very
fast enough to follow the changes in a measured
variable.
TYPES OF STATIC ERROR (cont)

- 3 types of systematic error :-

(i) Instrumental error
(ii) Environmental error
(iii) Observational error
 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR (cont)

(i) Instrumental error

- inherent while measuring instrument because of
their mechanical structure (eg: in a D’Arsonval meter,
friction in the bearings of various moving component,
irregular spring tension, stretching of spring, etc)
- error can be avoid by:
(a) selecting a suitable instrument for the particular
measurement application
(b) apply correction factor by determining
instrumental error
(c) calibrate the instrument against standard
 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR (cont)
(ii) Environmental error
- due to external condition effecting the
measurement including surrounding area condition
such as change in temperature, humidity,
barometer pressure, etc
- to avoid the error :-
(a) use air conditioner
(b) sealing certain component in the instruments
(c) use magnetic shields

(iii) Observational error

- introduce by the observer
- most common : parallax error and estimation error
(while reading the scale)
- Eg: an observer who tend to hold his head too far to the left
while reading the position of the needle on the scale.
 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR (cont)
3) Random error
- due to unknown causes, occur when all systematic
error has accounted
- accumulation of small effect, require at high degree of
accuracy
- can be avoid by
(a) increasing number of reading
(b) use statistical means to obtain best approximation
of true value
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
 ALLOWS AN ANALYTICAL DETERMINATION OF THE UNCERTAINTY OF
THE FINAL TEST RESULT. TAKE A LARGE NUMBER OF
MEASUREMENTS.
• ARITHMETIC MEAN
• DEVIATION FROM THE MEAN
 THE DEPARTURE OF A GIVEN READING FROM THE
ARITHMETIC MEAN OF THE GROUP OF READINGS
• AVERAGE DEVIATIONS
 AN INDICATION OF THE PRECISION OF THE INSTRUMENT
USED IN MEASUREMENT
• STANDARD DEVIATIONS
 THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR BECAUSE REDUCTION IN
THIS QUANTITY MEANS IMPROVEMENT IN MEASUREMENT
1) Arithmetic mean/average

x1  x 2  x 3    x n n
xi
x 
n i 1 n
n = total number of piece of data
xn = the value of the nth measurement
xi = set of number

2) Deviation
the difference between each piece of data and
arithmetic mean

d n  xn  x
* Note

dtot  d1  d 2    d n  0
algebraic sum of deviation
 3) Average deviation (D)
- precision of a measuring instrument
- high D low precision
- low D  high precision

d1  d 2    d n
D
n
4) Standard deviation
the degree to which the value vary about the
average value

n n n
 xi  x  d  i
2 2 2
i d
S i 1
 i 1
for n  30 S  i 1
for n  30
n 1 n 1 n
Example 1-4
For the following data compute
(a) The arithmetic mean (49.9)
(b) The deviation of each value (0.2,-0.2,-
0.3,0.3)
(c) The algebraic sum of the deviation (0)
(d) The average deviation (0.25)
(e) The standard deviation (0.294)
x1= 50.1
x2= 49.7
x3= 49.6
x4= 50.2
Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic – measuring a varying process condition.
Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to
changes in the measured variables due to such
things as mass, thermal capacitance, fluid
capacitance or electrical capacitance.
Pure delay in time is often encountered where the
instrument waits for some reaction to take place.
Such industrial instruments are nearly always used
for measuring quantities that fluctuate with time.
Therefore, the dynamic and transient behavior of the
instrument is important.
Dynamic Characteristics
The dynamic performance characteristics of
an instrument are:
 Speed of response- The rapidity with which an
instrument responds changes in measured
quantity.
 Dynamic error-The difference between the true
and measured value with no static error.
 Lag – delay in the response of an instrument to
changes in the measured variable.
 Fidelity – the degree to which an instrument
indicates the changes in the measured variable
without dynamic error (faithful reproduction).
Dynamic Characteristics

The dynamic behavior of an instrument is

determined by subjecting its primary element
(sensing element) to some unknown and
predetermined variations in the measured
quantity.
The three most common variations in the
measured quantity:
 Step change
 Linear change
 Sinusoidal change
Dynamic Characteristics
Step change-in which the primary element is
subjected to an instantaneous and finite change in
measured variable.
Linear change-in which the primary element is
following the measured variable, changing linearly
with time.
Sinusoidal change-in which the primary element
follows a measured variable, the magnitude of which
changes in accordance with a sinusoidal function of
constant amplitude.
Standard
A standard is a known accurate measure of physical
quantity.
Standards are used to determine the values of other
physical quantities by the comparison method.
All standards are preserved at the International
Bureau of Weight and Measures (BIMP), Paris.
Four categories of standard:
 International Standard
 Primary Standard
 Secondary Standard
 Working Standard
Standard
International Std
 Defined by International Agreement

 Represent the closest possible accuracy attainable by the current

science and technology

Primary Std
 Maintained at the National Std Lab (different for every country)

 Function: the calibration and verification of secondary std

 Each lab has its own secondary std which are periodically checked
and certified by the National Std Lab.
 For example, in Malaysia, this function is carried out by SIRIM.
Standard
Secondary Standard
 Secondary standards are basic reference standards used by
measurement and calibration laboratories in industries.
 Each industry has its own secondary standard.

 Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary standard to the

National standards laboratory for calibration and comparison
against the primary standard.
 After comparison and calibration, the National Standards
Laboratory returns the secondary standards to particular industrial
laboratory with a certification of measuring accuracy in terms of a
primary standard.

Working Std
 Used to check and calibrate lab instrument for accuracy and
performance.
 For example, manufacturers of electronic components such as
capacitors, resistors and many more use a standard called a
working standard for checking the component values being
manufactured.
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT
• Basic elements of an electronics instrument
Signal Indicating
Transducer Modifier Device

1) Transducer
- convert a non electrical signal into an electrical signal
- e.g: a pressure sensor detect pressure and convert it to
electricity for display at a remote gauge.
2) Signal modifier
- convert input signal into a suitable signal for the indicating
device
3) Indicating device
- indicates the value of quantity being measure
INSTRUMENT APPLICATION GUIDE

Selection, care and use of the instrument :-

 Before using an instrument, students should be thoroughly

familiar with its operation ** read the manual carefully

 Select an instrument to provide the degree of accuracy

required (accuracy + resolution + cost)

 Before used any selected instrument, do the inspection for

any physical problem

 Before connecting the instrument to the circuit, make

sure the ‘function switch’ and the ‘range selector switch’

has been set-up at the proper function or range
INSTRUMENT APPLICATION GUIDE

Analog Multimeter
INSTRUMENT APPLICATION GUIDE

Digital Multimeter
 ANALOGUE METER
Accurate measurement of current and
potential difference(voltage) is needed in all
branches of electricity and their applications,
for example in television, radio
telecommunications, dynamos and motors.
The most widely used commercial meter is
the moving coil type. Basically, it consists of
 (a) A rectangular coil with many turns
 (b) A powerful radial magnetic field between
curved pole pieces N and S and a soft iron cylinder
 (c) Springs to control the angle of rotation of the
coil
 (d) A uniform (linear) scale for measuring the
current.
The moving coil instrument is commonly used
in voltmeters, ammeters and ohmmeters. It
responds only to direct current. It is used in
rectifier- type instruments to measure
alternating current and voltage There are two
types of moving coil instruments
i. Electrodynamometer type
ii. Permanent magnet type
Electrodynamometer)

The operating field is produced, by a two air-cored

fixed coils placed on either side of the moving coil as
seen in fig. 1.12.
Electrodynamometer meter movements use
stationary coil and moving coils to develop interacting
magnetic fields (that is the electrodynamometer uses
two electromagnetic fields in its operation.
One field is created by the current flowing through a
pair of series-connected stationary coils.
The other field is caused by current flowing through a
movable coil that is attached to the pivot shaft.
If the current in the coils are in the correct directions,
the pointer rotates clockwise. The rotational torque
on the movable coil is caused by the opposing
magnetic forces of the three coils.
They respond to alternating current because the a.c.
reverses direction simultaneously in all three coil. and
also can operates on direct current and are used in
wattmeter. . Electrodynamometer meters have low
sensitivity and high accuracy
Fig. 1.12. Connection diagram of electrodynamometer
Instruments.
The operating principle of electrodynamometer is the
interaction between the currents in the moving coil,
mounted on a shaft, and the fixed coils, that is, the
deflecting torque is produced by the reaction
between the magnetic field set up by the current in
the moving coils and the magnetic field set up by
current in the fixed coil.
When the two coils are energized, their magnetic
fields will interact as a result of mechanical force
exists between the coils and the resulting torque will
tend to rotate the moving coil and cause the pointer
attached to it to move over the scale. Since there is
no iron, the field strength is proportional to the
current in the fixed coil and therefore, the deflecting
torque is proportional to the product of the currents
in the fixed coils and the moving coil.
Advantages of Electrodynamometer
These instruments can be used for both d.c and a.c
measurements.
Since the coil is generally air cored, they are free
from eddy current and hysteresis losses.
They can be use for power measurements.
Disadvantages of Electrodynamometer
They have low sensitivity
More expensive than the other types
Because the deflecting torque varies with the square
of the current, the scale is not uniform.
Applications:
The dynamometer instrument may be applied or
used as an ammeter or as a voltmeter but is
generally used as a wattmeter. They are suitable for
d.c as well as a.c work.
Permanent Magnet Type PMMC
The operation of permanent magnet moving coil
instrument is based on the principle that when a
current carrying conductor is placed in a magnet
field, a mechanical force acts on the conductor,
which tends the move it to one side and out of the
field.
Fig. 3.1.Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
When the instrument is connected in the circuit to
measure current or voltage, the operating current
flows through the coil. Since the coil is carrying
current and is placed in the magnetic filed of the
permanent magnet, a mechanical force act of it. As a
result, the pointer attached to the moving system
moves in a clockwise direction over the graduated
scale to indicate the value of current or voltage being
measured. (See fig. 3.1)
In the permanent magnet moving coil, the deflecting
torque in a moving coil instrument results from
interaction between the field set up by a permanent
magnet and the field produced by a current carrying
coil.
Advantages Of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Low power consumption
It has a uniform scale i.e. evenly divided scale
They have high sensitively, this enables very small
current to be detected or measure.
Not affected much by stray magnetic fields.
They have very effective and efficient edd-current
damping
They have no hysteresis loss as the magnetic is
practically constant
Very accurate and reliable
They can be modified with the help of shunts and
multipliers to cover a wide range of currents and
voltages.
Disadvantages Of P.m.m.c Instruments
cannot be used for a.c measurement because of the
rapidly charging direction of the current.
Use limited to d.c only
It is more expensive than others moving iron
instruments because of their accurate design.

Applications Of P.m.m.c
In the measurement of direct currents and voltage
In d.c galvanometers to defect small currents.
In ballistic galvanometers used mainly for measuring
changes of magnetic flux linkages.
 MOVING IRON MOVEMENT
REFER TO FIGURE 4:
 ELECTRO MAGNETIC COIL(2):CARRIES AN ALTERNATING OR
DIRECT CURRENT PROPORTIONAL TO THE QUANTITY OF
ELECTRICITY TO BE MEASURED AND PRODUCES A MAGNETIC FIELD
DEPENDING UPON THE TYPE OF CURRENT
 BOTH THE FIXED IRON VANE (3) AND MOVING IRON VANE(4)
PRODUCE SIMILAR TYPE OF POLES AT THEIR ENDS DUE TO THE
MAGNETIC FIELD. HENCE MAGNETIC REPULSION TAKES PLACE AND
(4) MOVES AWAY FROM THE (3).
 AS (4) IS FIXED TO SPINDLE(5), IT DEFLECTS.
 THE POINTER(7) ATTACHED TO (5) MOVES OVER THE
GRADUATED SCALE(8)
 CONTROL SPRING(6) OFFERS CONTROL TORQUE. THE SHAPE OF
(3) ENABLES THE TORQUE DEVELOPED TO BE PROPORTIONAL TO
THE CURRENT IN THE COIL HENCE THE SCALE IS MORE OR LESS
UNIFORM
62
 FIGURE 4 = MOVING IRON MOVEMENT

GRADUATED SCALE

CONTROL SPRING
SPINDLE
MOVING IRON VANE
POINTER
FIXED IRON VANE

ELECTRO MAGNETIC
COIL

JEWEL BEARING

63
FIGURE 5: MOVING IRON MOVEMENT
The moving iron vane movement can be used to measure
both AC current and voltage. By changing the meter scale
calibration, the movement can be used to measure DC current
and voltage.
The moving iron vane meter operates on the principle of
magnetic repulsion between like poles.
 The measured current flows through a field coil which
produces a magnetic field proportional to the magnitude of
current.
Suspended in this field are two iron vanes attached to a
pointer. The two iron vanes consist of one fixed and one
moveable vane.
The magnetic field produced by the current flow magnetizes
the two iron vanes with the same polarity regardless of the
direction of current through the coil.
 Since like poles repel one another, the moving iron vane pulls
away from the fixed vane and moves the meter pointer.
This motion exerts a force against a spring.
The distance the moving iron vane will travel against
the spring depends on the strength of the magnetic
field.
The strength of the magnetic field depends on the
magnitude of current flow.
Advantages of Moving iron:
The various advantages of moving iron instrument are:
1. The instrument can be used for both a.c and d.c measurements.
2. As the torque to weight ratio is high, errors due to the friction are
very less.
3. A single type of moving element can cover the wide range hence
these instruments are cheaper than the other types of instruments.
4. There are no current carrying part in the moving parts system hence
these meters are extremely rugged and reliable.
5. These are capable of giving good accuracy. Modern moving iron
instruments have a d.c errorof 2% less.

Disadvantages of : of Moving iron

The various disadvantages of Moving iron instrument are:
1. There are serious errors due to hysteresis, frequency changes and
stray magnetic fields
2. The increase in temperature increases the resistance of coil,
decreases stiffness of the spring, decreases the permeability and
hence affect the reading severely.
EXAMPLE:

PMMC (Permanent magnet moving coil)

In PMMC, coil is suspended in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet in

the shape of a horse-shoe. A coil is suspended so that it can rotate freely in
the magnetic field. When current flows in the coil, the developed
(electromagnetic) torque causes the coil to rotate.
The equation for developed torque is (derived from the basic law for
electromagnetic torque)
  BxAxIxN
Where,
 d  developetorque, NewtonMeter
B  FluxDensity,Wb / m 2
A  Effectivecoilarea (m 2 )
N  Numberofturnsofwireofthecoil
I  Current int hemoveablecoil (amperes)
Developed torque α Flux density of the field in which the coil
rotates.(A & N constant)

Example 1:
A moving coil instrument has the following data
Number of turns=100
Width of the coil=20mm
Depth of the coil=30mm
Flux density in the gap=0.1Wb/m2
Calculate the deflecting torque when carrying a current of 10mA. Also
calculate the deflection, if the control spring constant is 2x10-6
Nm/degree.
Solution:
The deflection torque is given by
 d = BxAxNxI
=0.1x30x10-3x20x10-3x100x10x10-3
=600x1000x0.1x10-9
=60x10-6 Nm
Summary (ANALOGUE METER)

D'Arsonval - A DC moving coil movement where the moving

coil is suspended between the poles of a permanent magnet
restrained by helical springs, and the measured current flowing
through the moving coil produces a torque on the attached
pointer proportional to the current.

Electrodynamometer - The moving coil and attached

pointer are suspended between and connected in series with
the two stationary field coils so that the same current flows
through each. A measured current flowing through the three
coils in either direction causes a magnetic repulsion between
the field coils and the moving coil. The magnetic repulsion
exerts a force against the spring and provides a measurement
of either DC or AC current.
Moving iron vane - The moving iron vane meter
operates on the principle of magnetic repulsion
between like poles. The measured current flows
through a field coil which induces a like magnetic
field into a fixed and moving vane causing the
moving vane to deflect a pointer in proportion to
the current or voltage applied to the coil.
THE END