DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

- A physical facility is needed to transmit digital signals, it cannot be transmitted

through a wireless medium

Advantages of Digital Transmission:

1. Noise immunity
2. Can multiplex digital signals with different rates and sources
3. More resistant to additive noise because of regenerators
4. Simpler to measure and evaluate than analog signals
5. Transmission errors can be detected and corrected more easily and accurately

Disadvantages of Digital Transmission:

1. Requires significantly more bandwidth
2. Additional encoding and decoding circuitry due to conversion from analog to digital signals
3. Incompatible with older analog transmission systems
PULSE MODULATION

Kinds:
1. PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
2. PPM (Pulse Position Modulation)
3. PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation)
4. PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)

PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM)

- invented by Alex H. Reeves of AT&T
- Not really a modulation but a form of digitally coding analog signals
PCM Sampling

2 basic techniques:
1. Natural sampling – tops of the sample pulse retain their natural shape
2. Flat-top sampling – most commonly used
- uses sample-and-hold circuit
 A/D conversion time – time where the capacitor store voltage
Droop - gradual discharge of the capacitor during conversion time

Example: For the S/H circuit, determine the largest-value capacitor that can be used.
Use an output impedance of 𝑍𝑓 = 10Ω, an on resistance for 𝑄1 = 10Ω, an
acquisition time of 10𝜇𝑠, a maximum peak-to-peak voltage of 10V, a maximum
output current from 𝑍1 = 10𝑚𝐴 and an accuracy of 1%.

Solution:
𝑑𝑉
𝑖=𝐶 where C = maximum capacitance (farads)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝐶= 𝑖 𝑑𝑉 i = maximum output current from 𝑍1 , 10𝑚𝐴
dv = max. change in voltage across 𝐶1 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 10𝑉
dt = charge time, which equals the aperture time, 10𝜇𝑠
10𝜇𝑠
𝐶 = 10𝑚𝐴 = 10𝑛𝐹
10𝑉
The charge time is: 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶
𝜏 Where 𝜏= one charge time constant (seconds)
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = R=output impedance of 𝑍1 plus the
𝑅 on resistance of 𝑄1 (ohms)
C = capacitance value of 𝐶1 (farads)
 Accuracy (%) Charge Time
10 2.3𝜏
1 4.6𝜏
0.1 6.9𝜏
0.01 9.2𝜏

For different accuracy, 𝐶1 will have a different value

For an accuracy of 1%:
10𝜇𝑠
𝐶= = 108.7𝑛𝐹
4.6(20)

To satisfy current limitations of 𝑍1 use 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 =10 nF

To satisfy accuracy  use 𝐶 = 108.7𝑛𝐹

To satisfy both  use 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 =10 nF

Sampling Rate  nyquist sampling rate

Sign-magnitude codes – used for PCM binary codes

MSB – most significant bit
- used as a sign-bit

Table of three-bit PCM code

Sign Magnitude Decimal Value
1 11 +3
1 10 +2
1 01 +1
1 00 +0
0 00 -0
0 01 -1
0 10 -2
0 11 -3
Quantization and the Folded Binary Code

Quantization – process of converting an infinite number of possibilities to a finite

number of conditions
- process of rounding off the amplitudes of the flat-top samples to a manageable
number of levels
Folded Binary Code
Sign Magnitude Decimal Quantization Range
Value
1 11 +3 +2.5V to +3.5V
1 10 +2 +1.5V to +2.5V
1 01 +1 +0.5V to +1.5V
1 00 +0 0V to +0.5V
0 00 -0 0V to -0.5V
0 01 -1 -0.5V to -1.5V
0 10 -2 -1.5V to -2.5V
0 11 -3 -2.5V to -3.5V
 Quantization interval or quantum – magnitude difference between adjacent steps
Overload distortion or peak limiting – magnitude of the sample exceeds the highest
quantization interval
Resolution – magnitude of a quantum
- equal to the voltage of the minimum step size = voltage of the least
significant bit 𝑉𝑙𝑠𝑏

To convert the quantized signal to a binary code:

example:
+ 1 V = 101

Quantization error – also called quantization noise 𝑄𝑛

- round-off errors

±0.5𝑉 = maximum quantization error for the given example

= ½ quantum
To determine PCM code:

Example:
For +2.6V sample, the folded PCM code is:

𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 2.6

= = 2.6~ + 3𝑉 = 111
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1

quantization error = 0.4V