How Living Things Reproduce

How Plants Reproduce

A. Asexual reproduction- a single parent
produces offspring that identical to
parent.

B. Sexual reproduction- two parents are

required to produce offspring whose
traits come form both parents.
PARTS OF A FLOWER
• PEDICLE: The stalk of a flower.
• RECEPTACLE: The part of a flower stalk where the parts of the flower are
attached.
• SEPAL: The outer parts of the flower (often green and leaf-like) that
enclose a developing bud.
• PETAL: The parts of a flower that are often conspicuously colored.
• STAMEN: The pollen producing part of a flower, usually with a slender
filament supporting the anther.
• ANTHER: The part of the stamen where pollen is produced.
• PISTIL: The ovule producing part of a flower. The ovary often supports a
long style, topped by a stigma. The mature ovary is a fruit, and the mature
ovule is a seed.
• STIGMA: The part of the pistil where pollen germinates.
• OVARY: The enlarged basal portion of the pistil where ovules are produced
Sexual reproduction in plants

• Flowering plants or angiosperms are

adapted for sexual reproduction.
• Flowering seasons correspond times of
the year that are most favorable for
pollination.
• Pollen grains (male gametophyte)
• Embryo sac (female gametophyte)
Pollination
• The transfers of pollen grains
from the other stigma of the
pistil.
• Self-pollination occurs when
pollen falls from the another
stigma of the same flower.
• Cross-pollination is the transfer
of pollen to another plant of the
same species.
Fertilization
• Fertilization in angiosperm is a complex
process in which two sperm cells are
utilized.
• This unique process is called double
fertilization
• Fertilization causes rapid changes in
the flower.
• A fruit is an enlarged ovary of a
flowering plant that contain seeds.
• Some fruits and seeds near water often
contain air chambers that allow them
to float.
Asexual reproduction
• Asexual reproduction in plants does not
involve the formation of flowers, fruits
and seeds.
• A part of plant such as stem or root
produces new plant.
• Offspring produced by asexual
reproduction are called clones.
Asexual reproduction (natural or
artificial)

• Vegetative propagation- production of

new plants form non-reproductive plant
parts.
• Example: strawberry and potato
Asexual reproduction (natural or
artificial)

• Artificial propagation- when humans

manipulate the process of vegetative
propagation of plants.
a. stem cutting

b.grafting
c. budding
How Animals Reproduce
• Reproduction is one of the most
characteristic features of living
organisms.
• Animals may reproduce sexually and
asexually.
 Animals Type of
Reproduction
hydra Asexual (warm weather)
Sexual (cold climate)
sponges Asexual and sexual

flatworm Asexual and sexual

cnidarians Sexual
jellyfish (polyp and medusa- body
forms)
annelids Sexual

mollusks Sexual
(hermaphrodite)
 Animals Type of
Reproduction
Starfish Asexual
(fragmentation)

Arthropods sexual
(metamorphosis)

Vertebrates Sexual (fertilization)

Fish •external, some fish (internal)
Frog •external
Reptile •internal
Birds •Internal
mammals •internal
How genes work
• Proteins are the tools of heredity.
• Cells store and transmit the information
needed to manufacture proteins through
protein synthesis. Protein synthesis is the
formation of proteins using the
information coded DNA and carried out by
RNA.
• Each protein molecule is made up of one
or more polypeptides, consisting of a
specific sequence acids linked together by
peptide bonds.
Four DNA subunits, known as
nucleotides
• Each nucleotide has three
parts: five carbon sugar,
phosphate and
nitrogenous base.
• Two large bases: adenine
(A) and guanine (G) are
called purines.
• Two small bases: cytosine
(C) and thymine (T) are
called pyrimidines
Chargaff’s rules- pairing of
nitrogenous bases

• Adenine-Thymine
• Cytosine-Guanine
DNA Replication
• DNA molecule separates
down the middle of the
ladder in order to make a
copy itself. Each half of the
original molecule serves as
a template along which new
complementary strand
forms.
• DNA replication generates
one parental DNA strand
and one complementary
strand.
Gene expression takes place in
two stages
Transcription
RNA copy of a gene is made.
RNA consists only one strand.
Has ribose as its five-carbon sugar.
Has nitrogen base uracil

Translation
RNA work together to assemble amino acids into
protein molecules.
Types of RNA
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) It carries the DNA
sequence information to particles in the
cytoplasm known as ribosomes.

2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) It provides the

platform for protein synthesis.

3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) It brings the amino

acids to the ribosomes, where protein
synthesis take place.
Two stages

1.Transcription
The synthesis of mRNA uses the gene on the
DNA molecule as a template. This happens in
the nucleus of eukaryotes

2. Translation
The synthesis of a polypeptide chain using
the genetic code on the mRNA molecule as its
guide.
Transcription and Translation
• Cells are governed by a cellular chain
of command
DNA RNA protein
• Transcription
– Is the synthesis of RNA under the direction
of DNA
– Produces messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Translation
– Is the actual synthesis of a polypeptide,
which occurs under the direction of mRNA
– Occurs in ribosomes
The DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is
translated into the polypeptide
Mistakes happen during
translation which may lead mutation
GENETIC ENGINEERING
 Transferring gene form one
organism to another.
 It is used to manufacture
proteins, repair damaged
genes and identify
individuals.
 Any organism that has a
modified or inserted gene
from one species is called
transgenic.
Advantages of using GMO’s
1. Pest-resistant crops
2. Diseases-resistant crops
3. Productive livestock
4. Mass produced drugs
Disadvantages of using GMO’s
1. Environmental hazards- pesticide resistant
may transfer their genes through cross-
breeding to weeds, making weeds pest
resistant.
2. Health risks- some people may have allergic
reactions to drugs or food.
3. Economy- marketing GMO products are
costly and most companies involved are
concerned that the returns of their
investment may take time.