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N P
N-type
P-type I
diode
symbol
V
Reverse bias Forward bias
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-1
4.1.1 Energy Band Diagram of a PN Junction
N-region P-region
Ef is constant at
(a) Ef
equilibrium
Ec
Ec and Ev are known
Ec Ef
(b)
Ev
relative to Ef
Ev
Ec
Ef
Ec and Ev are smooth,
(c)
Ev the exact shape to be
determined.
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-2
4.1.2 Built-in Potential
(a)
N-type P-type
NNdd NNa a
Ec
fbi
(b)
q
Ef
Ev
V
fbi
(c)
xN 0 xP x
q A kT kT N c
N-region n N d Nce A ln
q Nd
2
ni q B kT kT N c N a
P-region n Nce B ln 2
Na q ni
kT N c N a Nc
fbi B A ln ln
q ni
2
N d
kT N d N a
fbi ln 2
q ni
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-4
4.1.3 Poisson’s Equation
Gauss’s Law:
Dx
Poisson’s equation
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-5
4.2 Depletion-Layer Model
(a)
N
4.2.1
N
Field andN Potential
P
in the Depletion Layer
d a
(b)
N eut ra l Re gion D eple tion L a yer N e utr al R egi on
On the P-side of the
N P depletion layer, = –qNa
xnN 0 xpP
d E qN a
dx s
qNd
qN a qN a
E( x) x + C1 ( x P x)
(c) xpP
s s
x
xnN
–qN a
qN d
(d)
E( x) ( x - xN )
s
xnN 0 x pP x
V
f bi
(e)
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-6
(a)
N
4.2.1 Field Nd Potential in theNDepletion
and a
P
Layer
qN
Nda |xP| = Nd|xP|
(c) xp
of the junction is depleted more? x
Which side –x
n
–qNa
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-7
qNd
(c) xp
4.2.1x Field–qNand Potential in the Depletion Layer
n
x
On the P-side,
qN a
V ( x) ( xP x ) 2
(d)
2 s
xn 0 x pP x
N
f bi
V Arbitrarily choose the
(e)
voltage at x = xP as V = 0.
x
xnN xpP
On the N-side,
Ec
qN d
fbi , built-in potential V ( x) D ( x xN )2
(f)
Ef 2 s
Ev
qN d
fbi ( x xN )2
2 s
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-8
(a)
N Nd Na P
4.2.2 Depletion-Layer Width
N eut ra l Re gion D eple tion La yer N e utral R egi on
(b)
N P
–xnN 0 xpP
V is continuous at x = 0
2 sfbi 1 1
xP xN Wdep +
q Na Nd
If Na >> Nd , as in a P+NqNd
junction,
(c) xp
2 sfbi x
Wdep –xxn N |x P||xN|N d Na @ 0
qN d –qNa
Solution:
a) kT N d N a 10 20 1017 cm 6
fbi ln 2
0.026V ln 20 6
1V
q ni 10 cm
1/ 2
b) W 2 sfbi 2 12 8.85 10 1
14
c) xN Wdep 0.12 μm
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-10
4.3 Reverse-Biased PN Junction
V
+ –
N P
Ev
1 1 1 1
+
(a) V = 0
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-11
4.4 Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics
N Nd Na P
s
Reverse biased PN junction is Cdep A
a capacitor. Wdep
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-12
4.4 Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics
2(fbi + V )
2
1 Wdep
Cdep
2
A 2 s
2
qN S A2
Vr
– fbi Increasing reverse bias
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-13
EXAMPLE: If the slope of the line in the previous slide is
2x1023 F-2 V-1, the intercept is 0.84V, and A is 1 mm2, find the
lighter and heavier doping concentrations Nl and Nh .
Solution:
N l 2 /( slope q s A2 )
2 /( 2 10 23 1.6 10 19 12 8.85 10 14 10 8 cm 2 )
6 1015 cm 3
2 qf0.84
kT N h Nl ni kTb i 10 20 0.026
fbi ln N e e 1.8 1018
cm 3
6 1015
2 h
q ni Nl
Forward Current
V B, breakdown
voltage
V
R
Small leakage
Current
A
P N
R C
A
3.7 V
IC
Zener diode
B
D
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-15
4.5.1 Peak Electric Field
Neutral Region
increasing
reverse bias
N+ Na P
0 xp
2qN
1/ 2
(a)
E Ep E(0) (fbi + | Vr |)
Ep s
increasing reverse bias
s Ecrit 2
x VB fbi
xp 2qN
(b)
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-16
4.5.2 Tunneling Breakdown
Ev H / εp
JGe
I
V Ep Ecrit 10 V/cm
6
Breakdown
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-17
4.5.3 Avalanche Breakdown
• impact ionization: an energetic
Ec electron generating electron and
original
electron hole, which can also cause
Efp impact ionization.
Ev
• Impact ionization + positive
feedbackavalanche breakdown
s Ecrit 2
electron-hole VB
pair generation 2qN
Ec 1 1 1
Efn VB +
N Na Nd
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-18
4.6 Forward Bias – Carrier Injection
VV=0
=0 Forward
Forward biased
biased
I=0 V
– +
Ec N P
qfbi
- Ec
Ef qfbi –qV
Ev
Ef n qV Efp
Ev
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-19
4.6 Forward Bias –
Quasi-equilibrium Boundary Condition
( Ec E fn ) / kT ( Ec E fp ) / kT ( E fn E fp ) / kT
n( xP ) Nce Nc e e
( E fn E fp ) / kT
nP0e nP0e qV / kT
EEcc
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-20
4.6 Carrier Injection Under Forward Bias–
Quasi-equilibrium Boundary Condition
2
ni qV
n(xP ) nP 0 e
qV kT kT
e
Na
2
ni qV
p (xP) p N 0 e
qV kT kT
e
Nd
n( xP ) n( xP ) nP 0 nP 0 (e qV kT
1)
p( xN ) p( x N ) p N 0 p N 0 (e qV kT
1)
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-21
EXAMPLE: Carrier Injection
A PN junction has Na=1019cm-3 and Nd=1016cm-3. The applied
voltage is 0.6 V.
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-22
4.7 Current Continuity Equation
J p ( x) J p ( x + Dx) p
A A + A Dx
q q
a A
a re
Jp (x) Jp (x + Dx) J p ( x + Dx) J p ( x) p
q
p Dx
dJ p p
Volume = A·Dx q
dx
Dx
x
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-23
4.7 Current Continuity Equation
dJ p p
q Minority drift current is negligible;
dx Jp= –qDpdp/dx
d2p p
qD p 2 q
dx p
d p
2
p p d 2 n n
2 2
Dp p Lp
2
dx 2
dx Ln
L p D p p Ln Dn n
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-24
4.8 Forward Biased Junction-- Excess Carriers
P + N
d 2 p p
2
2
xP dx Lp
-x N
0
x p() 0
p( xN ) p N 0 (e qV / kT 1)
x / Lp
p ( x) Ae
x / Lp
+ Be
x xN / L p
p( x) pN 0 (eqV / kT 1)e , x xN
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-25
4.8 Excess Carrier Distributions
1.0
P-side N-side
Na = 1017 cm -3 Nd = 21017 cm-3
0.5
nP ' ex /L n pN' e–x /L p
x xN / L p
p ( x) pN 0 (e qV / kT
1)e , x xN
n( x) nP 0 (e qV / kT 1)e x xP / Ln , x xP
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-26
EXAMPLE: Carrier Distribution in Forward-biased PN Diode
N-type P-type
Nd = 5 cm-3 Na = 101 7 cm-3
Dp =12 cm2/s Dn=36.4 cm2 /s
p = 1 ms n = 2 ms
2
p´ ( = n’ ) 2´
x
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-27
EXAMPLE: Carrier Distribution in Forward-biased PN Diode
Ln Dn n 36 2 106 85 μm
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-28
4.9 PN Diode I-V Characteristics
Jtotal
Jtotal
Jp = Jtotal – Jn Jn = Jtotal – Jp
JnP JnP
JpN JpN
x
P-side 0 N-side P-side 0 N-side
dp( x) Dp x x N
qD p q 1)e
Lp
J pN p N 0 (e qV kT
dx Lp
dn( x) D
J nP qDn q n nP 0 (e qV kT
1)e x xP Ln
dx Ln
Dp Dn qV kT
Total current J pN ( xN ) + J nP ( xP ) q p +q nP 0 (e 1)
L N0 L
p n
J at all x
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-29
The PN Junction as a Temperature Sensor
I I 0 (e qV kT
1)
Dp Dn
I 0 Aqni 2
+
L N
p d Ln N a
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-30
4.9.1 Contributions from the Depletion Region
n p ni e qV / 2 kT
Net recombinat ion (generatio n) rate :
ni
(e qV / 2 kT 1)
dep
qniWdep
I I 0 (e qV / kT
1) + A (e qV / 2 kT 1)
τ dep
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-31
4.10 Charge Storage
1013 cm -3 QI
N-side P-side
n' I Q s
Q I s
p’
22
x
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-32
4.11 Small-signal Model of the Diode
I
1 dI d d
G I 0 (e qV / kT
1) I 0 e qV / kT
R dV dV dV
V R C
q kT
I 0 (e qV / kT ) I DC /
kT q
What is G at 300K and IDC = 1 mA?
Diffusion Capacitance:
dQ dI kT
C s sG s I DC /
dV dV q
Which is larger, diffusion or depletion capacitance?
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-33
Part II: Application to Optoelectronic Devices
4.12 Solar Cells
•Solar Cells is also known
as photovoltaic cells.
•Converts sunlight to
electricity with 10-30%
conversion efficiency.
•1 m2 solar cell generate
about 150 W peak or 25 W
continuous power.
•Low cost and high
efficiency are needed for
wide deployment.
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-34
4.12.1 Solar Cell Basics
I
Short Circuit
Dark IV
Eq.(4.9.4)
light
N P I
sc
0.7 V
- 0 V
Ec Solar Cell
IV
Eq.(4.12.1)
Ev –I
sc Maximum
+ power-output
(a)
I I 0 (e qV kT
1) I sc
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-35
Direct-Gap and Indirect-Gap Semiconductors
•Electrons have both particle and wave properties.
•An electron has energy E and wave vector k.
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-36
4.12.2 Light Absorption
x
If the sample is uniform (no PN junction),
d2p’/dx2 = 0 p’ = GLp2/Dp= Gp
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-38
Solar Cell Short-Circuit Current, Isc
Assume very thin P+ layer and carrier generation in N region only.
Isc G
p() L pG
2
p
Dp
P+ N p(0) 0
0
x x / Lp
p( x) pG(1 e )
P'
dp( x) Dp x / Lp
pG J p qD p q p Ge
dx Lp
0 Lp x I sc AJ p (0) AqLp G
G is really not uniform. Lp needs be larger than the light
penetration depth to collect most of the generated carriers.
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-39
Open-Circuit Voltage
•Total current is ISC plus the PV diode (dark) current:
ni2 D p qV / kT
I Aq (e 1) AqLp G
N d Lp
•Solve for the open-circuit voltage (Voc) by setting I=0
(assuming eqVoc / kT 1) 2
ni Dp qVoc / kT
0 e LpG
N d Lp
kT
Voc ln( pGNd / ni )
2
Ec
Radiative Non-radiative
recombination recombination
through traps
Ev
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-42
Direct and Indirect Band Gap
Trap
1.24 1.24
LED wavelengt h ( m m)
photon energy Eg (eV )
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-44
4.13.1 LED Materials and Structure
compound semiconductors
Lattice
Egg (eV)
E (eV ) Wavelength
(μm)
Color constant
(Å)
binary semiconductors:
- Ex: GaAs, efficient emitter
InAs 0.36 3.44 6.05
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-45
Common LEDs
Spectral Material
Substrate Example Applications
range System
Optical communication.
Red- GaA or
AlInGaP High-brightness traffic
Yellow GaP
signal lights
GaN or
Blue-UV AlInGaN
sapphire Solid-state lighting
Organic
Red-
semicon- glass Displays
Blue
ductors
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-46
4.13.2 Solid-State Lighting
luminosity (lumen, lm): a measure of visible light energy
normalized to the sensitivity of the human eye at
different wavelengths
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-47
4.14 Diode Lasers
4.14.1 Light Amplification
(a) Absorption (d) Net Light
Absorption
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-48
4.14.1 Light Amplification in PN Diode
Population inversion
is achieved when
qV E fn E fp E g
Equilibrium, V=0
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-49
4.14.2 Optical Feedback and Laser
N+
R1 R2 G 1
Cleaved
crystal
plane •R1, R2: reflectivities of the two ends
•G : light amplification factor (gain)
for a round-trip travel of the light
through the diode
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-50
4.14.2 Optical Feedback and Laser Diode
• Distributed Bragg
reflector (DBR) reflects
light with multi-layers of
semiconductors.
•Vertical-cavity surface-
emitting laser (VCSEL) is
shown on the left.
•Quantum-well laser has
smaller threshold current
because fewer carriers
are needed to achieve
population inversion in
the small volume of the
thin small-Eg well.
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-51
4.14.3 Laser Applications
Red diode lasers: CD, DVD reader/writer
Blue diode lasers: Blu-ray DVD (higher storage density)
1.55 mm infrared diode lasers: Fiber-optic communication
4.15 Photodiodes
Photodiodes: Reverse biased PN diode. Detects photo-
generated current (similar to Isc of solar cell) for optical
communication, DVD reader, etc.
Avalanche photodiodes: Photodiodes operating near
avalanche breakdown amplifies photocurrent by impact
ionization.
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-52
Part III: Metal-Semiconductor Junction
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-53
fBn Increases with Increasing Metal Work Function
Vacuum level, E0
Ef
Theoretically,
Ev fBn= yM – cSi
Depletion
Metal layer Neutral region
qfBn
Ec
Ef
N-Si • Schottky barrier height, fB ,
Ev is a function of the metal
material.
Ec
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-55
Schottky barrier heights for electrons and holes
Metal Mg Ti Cr W Mo Pd Au Pt
f Bn (V) 0.4 0.5 0.61 0.67 0.68 0.77 0.8 0.9
f Bp (V) 0.61 0.5 0.42 0.3
Work
Function 3.7 4.3 4.5 4.6 4.6 5.1 5.1 5.7
y m (V)
fBn + fBp Eg
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-56
Fermi Level Pinning
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-57
Schottky Contacts of Metal Silicide on Si
Silicide ErSi1.7 HfSi MoSi2 ZrSi2 TiSi2 CoSi2 WSi2 NiSi2 Pd2Si PtSi
ffBnBn (V) 0.28 0.45 0.55 0.55 0.61 0.65 0.67 0.67 0.75 0.87
ffBpBp (V) 0.55 0.49 0.45 0.45 0.43 0.43 0.35 0.23
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-58
Using C-V Data to Determine fB
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-59
Using CV Data to Determine fB
1/C2
1 2(fbi + V )
C 2
qN d s A2
qfBn qfbi
V Ec
fbi Ef
Nc
qfbi qfBn ( Ec E f ) qfBn kT ln
Nd
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-60
4.17 Thermionic Emission Theory
vthx
-
q(f B V) Ec
qfB
N-type Efm qV Efn
V Metal Silicon
Ev
2mn kT
3/ 2
n N c e q (f B V ) / kT 2 e q (f B V ) / kT
h
2
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-61
4.18 Schottky Diodes
Forward
biased
V=0
V
Reverse bias Forward bias
Reverse
biased
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-62
4.18 Schottky Diodes
I 0 AKT 2 e qf B / kT
4qmn k 2
K 3
100 A/(cm 2
K 2
)
h
I I S M + I M S I 0 e qV / kT I 0 I 0 (e qV / kT 1)
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-63
4.19 Applications of Schottly Diodes
I I Schottky diode I I 0 (e qV / kT 1)
I 0 AKT 2e qfB / kT
ffBB PN junction
PN junction
diode
V
V
PN Junction Schottky
rectifier Transformer rectifier
100kHz
110V/220V Hi-voltage Hi-voltage Lo-voltage 50A
DC MOSFET AC AC 1V DC
AC inverter
utility
power
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-65
4.19 Applications of Schottky diodes
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-66
4.20 Quantum Mechanical Tunneling
Tunneling probability:
8 2m
P exp (2T 2
(VH E ) )
h
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-67
4.21 Ohmic Contacts
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-68
4.21 Ohmic Contacts
2 sf Bn
Silicide N+ Si
Wdep fBn
fBn – V
qN d - - Ec , Ef
- - Ec , Ef Efm V
Tunneling
probability: Ev
HfBn Ev
Pe
Nd
x x
T Wdep / 2 sfBn / 2 qN d
4
H s mn / q
h
1 H ( fBn V ) /
J S M qN d vthx P qN d kT / 2mn e
Nd
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-69
4.21 Ohmic Contacts
1 Hf Bn / N d
dJ S M 2e Hf Bn /
Rc e Ω cm 2
Nd
dV qvthx H N d
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-70
4.22 Chapter Summary
Part I: PN Junction
2 s potential barrier
depletion width Wdep
qN
s
junction capacitance Cdep A
Wdep
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-71
4.22 Chapter Summary
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-72
4.22 Chapter Summary
I I 0 (e qV kT
1)
L p D p p
Dp Dn
I 0 Aqni 2
+
L N L N
p d n a
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-73
4.22 Chapter Summary
Charge storage: Q I s
Diffusion capacitance: C sG
kT
Diode conductance: G I DC /
q
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-74
4.22 Chapter Summary
Part II: Optoelectronic Applications
Solar cell power I sc Voc FF
•~100um Si or <1um direct–gap semiconductor can absorb most of solar
photons with energy larger than Eg.
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-75
4.22 Chapter Summary
LED and Solid-State Lighting
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-76
4.22 Chapter Summary
Laser Diodes
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-77
4.22 Chapter Summary
I 0 AKT 2 e qfB / kT
•Schottky diodes have large reverse saturation current, determined by the
Schottky barrier height fB, and therefore lower forward voltage at a given
current density.
4
( fB s mn / qNd )
Rc e h
Ω cm 2
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-78
fBn Increases with Increasing Metal Work Function
Vacuum level, E0
cSi = 4.05 eV
qyM Ideally,
fBn= yM – cSi
q fBn Ec
Ef
Ev
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-79