Manufacturing Technology I

(EPP 201)
Lecturer: DR. REZA MAHMOODIAN
Room: 3.05, School of Mechanical Engineering
Mahmoodian.reza@usm.my

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How these Items were produced?

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 Classification of Manufacturing Processes

Material Removal
Casting Process Forming Process Welding Process
Process

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4
Criteria for Selecting a Manufacturing
Process Flexibility: Cost:
• Shape • Labour charges
• Materials charges
• Structure
• Equipment
• Material • Max Benefit, min
cost

Quality: Additional Factors of

Product:
• Ease of process • Production Speed
• Performance
• Shape
Manufacturi • Size
ng method

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What is Machining?

•A group of processes that consist of the

removal of material and modification of
the surfaces of a workpiece after it has
been produced.

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When further Machining operations is
required?
• smooth shiny surfaces,
• small-diameter deep holes in a part
• threaded section,
• threaded holes.

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Machining Processes

• turning, boring, drilling, milling, planing, shaping, broaching, and

grinding, ultrasonic machining; chemical, electrical, electrochemical
machining; and high-energy-beam machining. Thus, machining
involves secondary and finishing operations.

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 Chapter 21
Fundamentals of Machining

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 TOPICS

Introduction
Mechanics of chip formation
Types of chips produced in metal cutting
Mechanics of oblique cutting
Cutting forces and power
Temperature in cutting
Tool life : Wear and failure
Surface finish and integrity
Machinability

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 Common Machining Operations

a) Turning, in which the workpiece

is rotated and a cutting tool
removes a layer of material as it
moves to the left.
b) Cutting-off operation, where the
cutting tool moves radially inward
and separates the right piece from
the bulk of blank.
c) Slab-milling operation, in which a
rotating cutting tool removes a layer
of material from the surface of
workpiece.
d) End-milling operation, in which a
rotating cutter travels along a certain
depth in the workpiece and produces
a cavity.

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Figure 21.1 Some examples of common machining operations.
 Introduction :
• Cutting process : Remove material from the surface of
the work piece by producing chips
• Turning operation : the work piece is rotated an a
cutting tool removes a layer of material as it moves to
the left
• Cutting off: Cutting tool moves radially inwards and
separated the right piece from the back of the blank.
• Slab-milling rotating cutting tool removes a layer of
material from the surface of the work piece
• End-milling rotating cutter travels along a certain depth
in the work piece and produces a cavity
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13
14
 The Turning Operation

The cutting tool is set at a

certain depth of cut (mm or
in.) and travels to left with a
certain velocity as the
workpiece rotates.

The feed or feed rate is the distance the tool travels horizontally per unit
revolution of the workpiece (mm/rev or in./rev). This movement of the tool
produces a chip which moves up the face of the tool.

Figure 21.2 Schematic illustration of the turning operation showing

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various features.
Two-Dimensional
Cutting Process
Figure 21.3 Schematic illustration
of a two-dimensional cutting
process, also called orthogonal
cutting: (a) Orthogonal cutting
with a well-defined shear plane,
also known as the Merchant Model.
Note that the tool shape, depth of
cut, to, and the cutting speed, V,
are all independent variables, (b)
Orthogonal cutting without a well-
defined shear plane.

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Factors Influencing Machining Operations

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Major independent variables

• To understand this table, let us identify the major independent

variables in the cutting process:
• a) Tool material and coatings;
• b) Tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness;
• c) Workpiece material and condition;
• d) Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut;
• e) Cutting fluids;
• f) Characteristics of the machine tool (such as its stiffness and
damping); and
• g) Workholding and fixturing.

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Dependent variables

• Dependent variables in cutting are those that are influenced by

changes in the independent variables listed above, and include:
• a) Type of chip produced,
• b) Force and energy dissipated during cutting,
• c) Temperature rise in the workpiece, the tool, and chip,
• d) Tool wear and failure, and
• e) Surface finish of the workpiece after machining.

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which of the independent variables should be
changed first and to what extent?
• When machining operations yield unacceptable results, a typical
question posed is which of the independent variables should be
changed first and to what extent, if:
• a) The surface finish of the workpiece being cut is poor and
unacceptable,
• b) The cutting tool wears rapidly and becomes dull,
• c) The workpiece becomes very hot, and
• d) The tool begins to vibrate and chatter.

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 • To answer the above
questions, we need to
study the mechanics
of chip formation. A
subject that has been
studied since early
1940’s where several
models have been
proposed.
• Fig. 21.3a shows the
simple model
(referred as the M.E.
Merchant model) is
sufficient for our
purpose. It is called
orthogonal cutting
The Mechanics of Chip (forces involved are
Formation: perpendicular to each
other).
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 Mechanics of Cutting
to sin 
Cutting ratio, r  
tc cos  
Shear angle preditions :
 
  45 
2 2
  45   
β: Friction Angle
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜇 = tan 𝛽
V sin 
Velocities, Vc 
cos   22
Mechanics of chip formation :
• Orthogonal cutting
• Rake angle – Alpha
• Relief angle ( clearance angle)
• Shear angle ( Phi)
• Thickness of a chip – Tc
• Depth of cut- T0
• Cutting ratio r = T0 / Tc
= Sin Phi / Cos ( Phi- Alpha )

to sin 
Cutting ratio, r  
tc cos  
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 Chip Formation by Shearing

𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝑂 𝑂𝐵
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛾 = = + 𝛾 = cot ∅ + (tan ∅ + 𝛼)
𝑂𝐶 𝑂𝐶 𝑂𝐶

Figure 21.4 (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation
by shearing. (b) Velocity diagram showing angular relationships among the
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three speeds in the cutting zone.
 Chips Produced in
Orthogonal Metal
Cutting

Figure 21.5 Basic types of chips produced in orthogonal metal cutting, their
schematic representation, and photomicrographs of the cutting zone: (a)
continuous chip with narrow, straight, and primary shear zone; (b) continuous
chip with secondary shear zone at the chip-tool interface; (c) built-up edge; (d)
segmented or nonhomogeneous chip; and (e) discontinuous chip. Source: 25 After
M.C. Shaw, P.K. Wright, and S. Kalpakjian.
 Continuous chips
• Continuous chips are usually formed at high rake angles and/or high
cutting speeds.
• A good surface finish is generally produced.
• continuous chips are not always desirable, particularly in automated
machine tools,
• tend to get tangled around the tool
• operation has to be stopped to clear
away the chips.

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Built-up edges chips
• BUE consists of layers of material from the workpiece
that are gradually deposited on the tool.
• BUE then becomes unstable and eventually breaks up
• BUE material is carried away on the tool side of the
chip
• the rest is deposited randomly on the workpiece
surface.
• BUE results in poor surface finish
• reduced by increasing the rake angle and therefore
decreasing the depth of cut.
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 Built-up Edge

(b)

(c)

Figure 21.6 (a) Hardness distribution with a built-up edge in the cutting zone
(material, 3115 steel). Note that some regions in the built-up edge are as much as
three times harder than the bulk metal of the workpiece. (b) Surface finish
produced in turning 5130 steel with a built-up edge. (c) Surface finish on 1018
steel in face milling. Magnifications: 15x. Source: Courtesy of Metcut Research Associates,
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Inc.
Discontinuous chips
• Discontinuous chips consist of segments that may be
firmly or loosely attached to each other

• These chips occur when machining hard brittle

materials such as cast iron.

• Brittle failure takes place along the shear plane before

any tangible plastic flow occurs

• Discontinuous chips will form in brittle materials at

low rake angles (large depths of cut).

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 Serrated chips
• Figure :20.5e
• Segmented chips or non-homogeneous chips
• Semi continuous chips with zones low and high
shear strain
• Low thermal conductivity and strength metals
exhibit this behavior

Fig 20.5 (e)segmented or

nonhomogeneous chip and

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 Chip Breaker

Figure 21.7 (a) Schematic

illustration of the action of a
chip breaker. Note that the
chip breaker decreases the
radius of curvature of the
chip and eventually breaks
it. (b) Chip breaker
clamped on the rake face of
a cutting tool. (c) Grooves
in cutting tools acting as
chip breakers. Most cutting
tools used now are inserts
with built-in chip breaker
features.

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Chip Breaker

•Long continuous chip are undesirable

•Chip breaker is a piece of metal clamped to
the rake surface of the tool which bends the
chip and breaks it
•Chips can also be broken by changing the tool
geometry, thereby controlling the chip flow

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 Chips Produced in Turning

Figure 21.8 Chips produced in turning: (a) tightly curled chip; (b) chip hits
workpiece and breaks; (c) continuous chip moving radially away from
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workpiece; and (d) chip hits tool shank and breaks off. Source: After G. Boothroyd.
 Cutting with an Oblique Tool

i: inclination angle

Figure 21.9 (a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an oblique tool.

Note the direction of chip movement. (b) Top view, showing the
inclination angle, i,. (c) Types of chips produced with tools at increasing
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inclination angles.
 Right-hand Cutting Tool and Insert

Figure 21.20 (a) Schematic illustration of right-hand cutting tool. The various angles on
these tools and their effects on machining are described in Section 23.3.1 Although these
tools traditionally have been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have been replaced
largely with (b) inserts made of carbides and other materials of various shapes and sizes.
• The cutting edge is at an angle i, called inclination angle.
• The chip movement is in lateral direction 35
 Cutting Forces
Fc: Cutting force R: resultant Force
V: Cutting Speed Ft: Thrust Force

F: Friction force, N: normal force

Figure 21.11 (a) Forces acting on a cutting tool during two-dimensional
cutting. Note that the resultant force, R, must be collinear to balance the
forces. (b) Force circle to determine various forces acting in the cutting
zone. 36
Cutting Forces and Power

Shear force, Fs  Fc cos   Ft sin 

Normal force, Fn  Fc sin   Ft cos 

F Ft  Fc tan 
Coefficient of friction,   
N Fc  Ft tan 
Power  FcV
𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐹𝑉𝑐 𝐹𝑟
= =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐹𝑐 𝑉 𝐹𝐶 37
Cutting Forces and Power
EXAMPLE 21.1
Relative Energies in Cutting
In an orthogonal cutting operation, to=0.13 mm, V=120
m/min, α=10° and the width of cut 6 mm. It is observed that
tc=0.23 mm, Fc=500 N and Ft=200 N. Calculate the
percentage of the total energy that goes into overcoming
friction at the tool–chip interface.

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Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Cutting Forces and Power
Solution
Relative Energies in Cutting
The percentage of the energy can be expressed as
Friction Energy FVc Fr
 
Total Energy FcV Fc
where
t0 0.13
r   0.565
tc 0.23
We have
F  R sin  , Fc  R cos    and
R Ft
2

 Fc2  200 2  500 2  539 N
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Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Cutting Forces and Power
Solution
Relative Energies in Cutting
Thus,
500  539 cos  10    32
F  539 sin 32  286 N
Hence

Percentage 
2860.565
 0.32 or 32%
500

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Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Range of Energy Requirements in Cutting Operations

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 Temperatures in
Cutting Zone

Mean temperature in cutting:

1.2Y f
Tmean 
Vto 1/ 3
c 
 K 
where
Y f  flow stress, psi
c  volumetric specific heat, in. - lb/in 3 - F
K  thermal diffusivity


Figure 21.12 Typical temperature distribution in the cutting zone. Note
the severe temperature gradients within the tool and the chip, and that the
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workpiece is relatively cool. Source: After G. Vieregge.
 Temperatures Developed in Turning 52100 Steel

Figure 21.13 Temperatures developed in turning 52100 steel: (a) flank

temperature distribution and (b) tool-ship interface temperature
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distribution. Source: After B. T. Chao and K. J. Trigger.
 Proportion of Heat from Cutting Transferred as
a Function of Cutting Speed

Figure 21.14 Proportion of the heat generated in cutting transferred into

the tool, workpiece, and chip as a function of the cutting speed. Note that
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the chip removes most of the heat.
Wear Patterns on Tools

Figure 21.15 (a) Flank

wear and crater wear
in a cutting tool; the
tool moves to the left
as in Fig. 21.3. (b)
View of the rake face
of a turning tool,
showing various wear
patterns. (c) View of
the flank face of a
turning tool, showing
various wear patterns.
(d) Types of wear on a
turning tool: 1. flank
wear; 2. crater wear; 3.
chipped cutting edge;
4. thermal cracking on
rake face; 5. built-up
edge; 6. catastrophic
failure. (See also Fig.
21.18.) Source:
Courtesy of
Kennametal, Inc. 45
• Flank wear :It occurs on the relief face of the tool and
the side relief angle.
• Crater wear: It occurs on the rake face of the tool.
• Chipping :Breaking away of a small piece from the
cutting edge of the tool .

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 Taylor Tool Life Equation

Taylor Equation:

VT n  C
VT nd x f y  C
1/ n
C 
T  
V: Cutting Speed V 

T: time (in minutes) required to develop certain flank wear land
n = exponent that depends on tool and workpiece materials and cutting conditions.
C = constant.
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Effect of Workpiece Hardness and Microstructure on
Tool Life

Figure 21.16 Effect of workpiece hardness and microstructure on tool life

in turning ductile cast iron. Note the rapid decrease in tool life
(approaching zero) as the cutting speed increases. Tool materials have
been developed that resist high temperatures, such as carbides,
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ceramics, and cubic boron nitride, as will be described in Chapter 22.
 Tool-life Curves

Figure 21.17 Tool-life

curves for a variety of
cutting-tool materials. The
negative inverse of the
slope of these curves is
the exponent n in the
Taylor tool-life equation
and C is the cutting speed
at T = 1 min, ranging from
about 200 to 10,000 ft./min
in this figure.

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Allowable Average Wear Land for Cutting Tools

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 Types of Wear seen in Cutting Tools

Figure 21.28 (a) Schematic illustration of types of wear observed on various cutting tools.
(b) Schematic illustrations of catastrophic tool failures. A wide range of parameters
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influence these wear and failure patterns. Source: Courtesy of V. C. Venkatesh.
 Relationship between Crater-Wear Rate and
Average Tool-Chip Interface Temperature

Figure 21.19 Relationship between crater-wear rate and average tool-chip

interface temperature: 1) High-speed steel, 2) C-1 carbide, and 3) C-5
carbide (see Table 22.4). Note how rapidly crater-wear rate increases with
an incremental increase in temperature. Source: After B. T Chao and K. J
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Trigger.
Cutting Tool Interface and Chip

Figure 21.20 Interface of a

cutting tool (right) and chip (left)
in machining plain-carbon steel.
The discoloration of the tool
indicates the presence of high
temperatures. Compare this
figure with the temperature
profiles shown in Fig. 21.12.
Source: Courtesy of P. K.
Wright.

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 Machined Surfaces Produced on Steel

(a) (b)

Figure 21.21 Machined surfaces produced on steel (highly magnified), as

observed with a scanning electron microscope: (a) turned surface and (b)
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surface produced by shaping. Source: Courtesy of J. T. Black and S. Ramalingam.
 Dull Tool in Orthogonal Machining

Figure 21.22 Schematic illustration of a dull tool with respect to the depth of cut
in orthogonal machining (exaggerated). Note that the tool has a positive rake
angle, but as the depth of cut decreases, the rake angle effectively can become
negative. The tool then simply rides over the workpiece (without cutting) and
burnishes its surface; this action raises the workpiece temperature and causes
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surface residual stresses.
 Feed Marks on a Turned Surface

Surface roughness:

f2
Ra 
8R
where
f  feed
R  tool - nose radius


Figure 21.23 Schematic illustration of feed marks on a surface being turned
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(exaggerated).
Surface Finish and Integrity
• Vibration and chatter
• adversely affects workpiece surface finish
• tool vibration ⇒ variations in cutting dimensions
• chatter ⇒ chipping, premature failure in brittle tools (e.g.
ceramics, diamond)

• Factors influencing surface integrity (adversely) are:

1. Temperatures generated during processing
2. Surface residual stresses
3. Severe plastic deformation and strain hardening of the
machined surfaces, tearing and cracking
• note, each of these factors can be controlled by carefully
choosing and maintaining cutting tools
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Surface Finish and Integrity
Rough machining vs. Finish machining
• Rough machining
• focus: removing a large amount of material at a high rate
• surface finish is not emphasized since it will be improved
during finish machining
• Finish machining
• focus is on the surface finish to be produced
• note, it is important that workpiece has developed no
subsurface-damage due to rough machining (as in slide 54)

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