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TRAN3001

Highway Engineering Lecture 8


Structural Design
Flexible Pavement Design
Overseas Road Note 31
CBR
AASHTO Flexible Pavement Design
Bituminous Surfacings
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement
The Design Process
One (empirical) method of design that is often used is
that outlined in Overseas Road Note 31 (Fourth Edition,
1993) A guide to the structural design of bitumen-
surfaced roads in tropical and sub-tropical countries
published by the Transport Research Laboratory of
Britain.
The procedure described in the Note includes the
determination of the ESAL as described previously and
the traffic is grouped into one of eight classes (T1 – T8),
ranging from under 0.3 million to 30 million ESALs.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
The Design Process (Cont’d)
The next step is assessing the subgrade strength
and this is done by means of a soil test, the
California Bearing Ratio (CBR).
The CBR test is entirely empirical and does not
measure any basic property of the soil. The
results are only applicable to the design
procedure.
For purposes of pavement design, the subgrade
moisture content is estimated.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
The Design Process (Cont’d)
For designing the thickness of a road pavement,
the strength of the subgrade should be taken as
that of the soil at a moisture content equal to the
wettest moisture condition likely to occur in
the subgrade after the road is opened to traffic.
Subgrade moisture conditions under
impermeable road pavements can be classified
into three main categories:
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
The Design Process (Cont’d)
Category (1): Subgrades where the water table is
sufficiently close to the ground surface to
control the subgrade moisture content.
This includes areas where the water table is
maintained by rainfall, i.e. when rainfall exceeds
evapotranspiration.
The water table can also be maintained by a
river or the sea, such as coastal strips and flood
plains.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
The Design Process (Cont’d)
Category (2): Subgrades with deep water tables
with rainfall sufficient to produce significant
changes in moisture conditions under the road.
These conditions occur when rainfall exceeds
evapotranspiration for at least two months of
the year and average annual rainfall is in excess
of 250 mm.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
The Design Process (Cont’d)
Category (3): Subgrades in areas with no
permanent water table near the ground surface.
In these areas the climate is dry throughout
most of the year, with an annual rainfall of 250
mm or less.
Locally, average annual rainfall is about 2,200
mm and the 4-day soaked CBR value, which
represents saturated subgrade conditions, is
commonly specified.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
The Design Process (Cont’d)
The relationship between moisture content,
density and strength of the subgrade soil (CBR) is
determined by laboratory testing.
At any given moisture content the soil strength can
be increased if the density of the soil is increased
by decreasing its air content.
In the laboratory the CBR of the soil is observed to
increase as the unit weight of the sample is
increased with the moisture content kept constant.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
The Design Process (Cont’d)
Therefore, a design unit weight must be selected
that corresponds to the (minimum) state of
compaction expected to be achieved in the field.
A load versus penetration test is carried out in the
laboratory on a specimen of the subgrade soil
which is at the moisture content and density
appropriate for the subgrade in service.
A load versus penetration curve is plotted and
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
The Design Process (Cont’d)
The values for the standard material (crushed
limestone) establish the scale for assessing soil
strength.
The CBR value obtained is multiplied by 100 so
that it is expressed as a percentage.
CBR values can also be measured in situ for fine-
grained soils where, unlike granular soils, the
results are equivalent to the laboratory test
results on which the CBR values are based.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
The Design Process (Cont’d)
Fine-grained soils typically have low CBR values
of 2 – 5%, whereas well-graded, coarse-grained
soils can have values in excess of 80%. Where
drainage is poor these values can be less than
half of the above.
To reduce costs, selected fill, with a minimum
15% CBR, can be used to provide sufficient
cover on weak subgrades instead of a thicker
subbase.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
The Design Process (Cont’d)
A minimum CBR of 30 per cent is required for
the subbase layer and well-graded sandy gravels
and similar coarse-grained materials are
suitable.
When properly constructed, crushed stone
roadbases will have CBR values well in excess of
100 per cent and do not require CBR tests.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
The Design Process (Cont’d
While the moisture content of the subgrade soil is
largely governed by the local climate and the
depth of the water table below the road surface,
the density of the subgrade soil can be controlled
within limits by compaction at a suitable moisture
content at the time of construction.
Compaction will not only improve the subgrade
bearing strength but will reduce permeability and
subsequent compaction by traffic.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
The Design Process (Cont’d)
With step two of the process completed the design
charts in the Road Note are then used to determine the
layer thicknesses.
The design charts are based primarily on the results of
full-scale experiments as well as studies of the
performance of as-built existing road networks.
Where direct empirical evidence is lacking, designs
have been interpolated/extrapolated from empirical
studies using road performance models as well as
analytical methods.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
The Design Process (Cont’d)
The eight (8) traffic classes and six (6) subgrade
strength classes as shown in the Road Note are
listed hereunder:
Traffic Classes (106 ESALs)
T1 < 0.3 T5 3.0 – 6.0
T2 0.3 – 0.7 T6 6.0 – 10
T3 0.7 – 1.5 T7 10 – 17
T4 1.5 – 3.0 T8 17 – 30
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
The Design Process (Cont’d)
Subgrade Strength Classes (CBR %)
S1 2
S2 3 – 4
S3 5 – 7
S4 8 – 14
S5 15 – 29
S6 30+
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
The Design Process (Cont’d)
Symbols used on the Chart

Surface

Flexible Bituminous Surface Granular Roadbase Selected Fill

Bituminous Surface Granular Subbase


(Wearing and Base Course)
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
AASHTO Flexible Pavement Design
A key element of flexible pavement design in
the 1993 AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement
Structures is the Structural Number (SN), which
represents the overall structural requirement
needed to sustain the traffic loads expected in
the design.
The SN depends on a combination of soil
support, ESAL loading, pavement serviceability
and environmental conditions. Nomographs are
generally used to determine the value of SN.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
AASHTO Flexible Pavement Design (Cont’d)
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
AASHTO Flexible Pavement Design (Cont’d)
Once the value of the Structural Number (SN) is
known, the appropriate thickness of each of the
pavement layers can be determined. The
following equation shows the relationship
between the SN and layer thickness:
SN = a1D1 + a2D2m2 + a3D3m3
where a is a layer coefficient representing the
relative strength of the material, D is the layer
thickness and m is a drainage coefficient.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
AASHTO Flexible Pavement Design (Cont’d)
The subscript number used in the equation
indicates which layer is meant, with the numbering
beginning at the top of the pavement structure.
For design purposes, layer coefficients are usually
determined empirically based on the performance
of the material. Some typical layer coefficient
values are:
• Hot mix asphalt – 0.44
• (Aggregate) roadbase – 0.13
• Subbase – 0.10
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
AASHTO Flexible Pavement Design (Cont’d)
The drainage coefficient is a value assigned to a
pavement layer which represents its relative loss of
strength due to drainage characteristics or
exposure to moisture saturation.
Layers that drain slowly or are often saturated
would have a lower drainage coefficient, while
layers that drain quickly and rarely become
saturated would have a higher coefficient.
For pavement designs, the drainage coefficients are
generally set to 1 (normal drainage characteristics).
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
AASHTO Flexible Pavement Design (Cont’d)
With the appropriate layer and drainage
coefficients known, suitable thicknesses for each
of the pavement layers can then be determined.
The relationship between SN and layer
thicknesses does not give a single correct answer
for the thickness of each pavement layer. There
will normally be different combinations of layer
thicknesses that could achieve the required SN.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing
While roadbases may be bound with bitumen,
the design, manufacture and construction of hot
premixed bituminous pavement materials, or
hot mix asphalt (HMA) is primarily concerned
with the surfacing which is the top layer of the
flexible pavement.
HMA surfacing for roads may be a single layer or
a two layer base/binder course topped with a
wearing course.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Traffic is in direct contact with the HMA wearing
course which must be of high quality and have
predictable performance.
Typically HMA wearing courses need to have the
following characteristics:
• high resistance to deformation
• high fatigue and strain resistance (flexibility)
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
• (though not considered in the design) sufficient
stiffness does help to reduce stresses in the
underlying layers
• high resistance to environmental degradation
i.e. good durability which maintains the smooth
running surface while protecting the underlying
layers
• low permeability to prevent the ingress of water
which can damage the underlying layers
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
• good workability to allow adequate compaction
during construction
• sufficient surface texture to provide good skid
resistance, particularly in wet weather
• predictable performance
The materials and the relative proportions of
each are key considerations in HMA mix design. .
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Mix Components
The types of HMA most frequently used locally
and in tropical countries are manufactured in an
asphalt plant by hot-mixing appropriate
proportions of the following materials:
• coarse aggregate, defined as material having
particles larger than 2.36mm (4.75 mm in
accordance with AASHTO)
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Mix Components (Cont’d)
• fine aggregate, defined as material having
particles less than 2.36mm and larger than
0.075 mm
• filler, defined as material having particle sizes
less than 0.075mm, which may originate from
fines in the aggregate or be added in the form
of cement, lime or ground rock, the latter
being more commonly used locally.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Mix Components (Cont’d)
• a penetration- grade bitumen with viscosity
characteristics appropriate for the type of HMA,
the climate and the loading conditions where it
will be used.
HMA Types
Two generic types of HMA are commonly used in
countries like Trinidad and Tobago with tropical
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
HMA Types (Cont’d)
• Asphaltic Concrete (AC) which is by far the
more commonly used mix. Traffic stresses are
transmitted mainly through an aggregate
structure that has a continuous particle size
distribution.
This gives the maximum density after
compaction, however, such a dense structure
makes AC sensitive to errors in the
composition of the mix.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
HMA Types (Cont’d)
• Hot Rolled Asphalt Mixes in which traffic
stresses are passed through the fines/filler/
bitumen matrix. In these mixes the aggregate
particle size distribution is discontinuous or
gap-graded.
It is less used on heavily trafficked roads and
still recommended on residential roads as it is
less sensitive to proportioning, making it easier
to manufacture, lay and compact than AC.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
AC Design Considerations
Asphaltic Concrete (AC) has to be designed to
resist deterioration caused by three main failure
modes: fatigue cracking, plastic deformation
and loss of skid resistance in the surfacing .
Cracking is as a result of thermal or traffic-
induced strains or a combination of both.
One way of improving the durability of the AC is
to increase the bitumen content.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
AC Design Considerations (Cont’d)
This reduces the air voids content and brittleness.
Any surface cracking in the bitumen-rich mix is
likely to remain shallow for a considerable time.
However, using a mix too rich in bitumen
introduces a risk of failure through plastic
deformation. Under heavy traffic the air voids
content can be reduced to a critical level at which
plastic deformation occurs relatively rapidly.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
AC Design Considerations (Cont’d)
The relationship between the in situ air voids
content and asphalt deformation observed on
high trafficked roads in countries with high road
temperatures shows that the air voids content
must be greater than 3 per cent to avoid the
plastic deformation that causes rutting and
similar effects of instability.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
AC Design Considerations (Cont’d)
When the air voids content in an AC layer
decreases to less than approximately 3 percent,
stress transfer, which was occurring through
intergranular contact pressure in the coarse
aggregate, switches to the bitumen-fines
component because of too much binder in the
mix, until plastic deformation occurs.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
AC Design Considerations (Cont’d)
Loss of skid resistance or surface texture due to
the polishing action of vehicle tyres can develop
because of the use of the wrong type of aggregate
(low resistance to polishing), incorrect aggregate
particle size as well as wrong binder content and
viscosity which results in progressive embedment
of the aggregate in the surfacing.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design
There are many methods available for AC
(asphaltic concrete) mix design which vary in the
size of the test specimen, compaction, and other
test specifications.
The Marshall method of mix design is the one
most commonly used .
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
The Marshall method is suitable for the design
and field control of AC mixes containing
aggregates with a maximum size of up to 25mm.
Aggregates are prepared and blended to give
samples which conform to a selected particle size
distribution. Initial mix design samples are
prepared that cover a range of bitumen contents.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
The samples are subjected to a level of
compaction which is related to the expected
traffic, in terms of ESALs, to be carried in the
design life of the AC layer(s).
The properties of the compacted samples,
including bulk density, air voids, stability and
deformation characteristics under load, are then
determined.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
If the mix properties do not meet the specified
design criteria, the mix must be reformulated and
the tests repeated until an acceptable design is
established.
Sufficient quantities of coarse aggregate, fine
aggregate, filler and bitumen, representative of
those to be used on the project, need to be
obtained.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
This will allow tests to be repeated if necessary or
testing of different aggregate gradings.
Sieve analysis is carried out on representative
samples of each aggregate source and filler. Using
the results of the sieve analysis obtained for each
source of aggregate, a blend is computed which
conforms to the specified aggregate particle size
distribution.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
Samples of bitumen should be taken from either
the storage tank or the delivery tanker. The
following properties of the bitumen are
measured:
• Penetration at 25°C.
• Softening point (the temperature at which the
penetration is assumed to be 800).
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
• Viscosity at approximately 105°C to 115°C,
135°C and 160°C.
The results of the tests are plotted on a bitumen
test data chart which indicates the temperature-
viscosity characteristics of the bitumen and
enable selection of the ranges of ideal mixing
and compaction temperatures.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
A series of test specimens are prepared for a range
of different bitumen contents (typically 5 blends
with 3 samples each for a total of 15 specimens),
which span the expected design value.
The expected design value is estimated from
experience or a formula based on aggregate
gradation and absorption of bitumen.
Structural Design (Cont’d)

Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)


Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
The test specimens are transferred to the Marshall
compaction apparatus and compacted by the specified
number of blows of the Marshall hammer depending on
the ESAL of the expected traffic.
The mix properties to be determined from the test
specimens are the bulk specific gravity (G), percent air
voids (Vv), percent volume of bitumen (Vb), percent voids
in the mineral aggregate (VMA) and percent voids filled
with bitumen (VFB).
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
VMA A
Air Voids Vv
Bitumen
Vb Vb
Filler

V
Fine Aggregate

Coarse Aggregate

Specimen Phase Diagram


Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
Vv is the ratio of the volume of air voids to the
total specimen volume, expressed as a
percentage.
Similarly, Vb is the percent of the volume of
bitumen to the total volume.
VMA is the volume of voids in the aggregates,
which is the sum of the air voids and the
bitumen volume: VMA = Vv + Vb
Structural Design (Cont’d)

Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)


Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
VFB is the ratio of the percent bitumen content in
the mix (Vb) to the VMA (voids in the mineral
aggregate framework) expressed as a percentage.
The mix properties are used to determine Marshall
stability and flow.
The Marshall stability of a test specimen is the
maximum load required to produce failure under
standard test conditions.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
If there is a slight variation ( + 6.4 mm) between
the thickness of the test specimen and the
standard specimen thickness measured stability
values are corrected to those which would have
been obtained if the specimens had been
exactly 63.5 mm.
The load is applied at a constant strain (50 mm
per minute) and the vertical deformation of the
specimen is measured.
Structural Design (Cont’d)

Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)


Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
The deformation at the failure point expressed in
units of 0.25 mm is called the Marshall flow value of
the specimen.
The stability value, flow value, and VFB are checked
with the Marshall mix design specifications.
The average value of the properties (G, Vv, Vb, VMA
and VFB) are then determined for each mix and the
following 5 graphs plotted:
Structural Design (Cont’d)

Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)


Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
• Bitumen content versus (corrected) Marshall
stability
• Bitumen content versus Marshall Flow
• Bitumen content versus percentage of voids
(Vv) in the total mix
• Bitumen content versus percentage of voids in
the mineral aggregate filled with bitumen (VFB)
Structural Design (Cont’d)
S F V
t l T
a 0 M
b w
i
l
i
t
y

V U
F n
B I
t
W
t.

Bitumen Content (% by weight of total mix)


Typical Marshall Test Data
Structural Design (Cont’d)

Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)


Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
• Bitumen content versus unit weight or bulk
specific gravity
The optimum bitumen content for the mix
design is determined by taking the average value
of the following three bitumen contents found
from the graphs:
Structural Design (Cont’d)

Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)


Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
• Bitumen content corresponding to maximum
stability
• Bitumen content corresponding to maximum
bulk specific gravity or unit weight
• Bitumen content corresponding to the median
of designed limits of percent air voids (Vv) in
the total mix (usually 4%)
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Typical Marshall Design Criteria
Light Traffic Medium Traffic
One standard Marshall mix design procedure is: Heavy Traffic
Mix Criteria (< 104 ESALs) (104 – 106 ESALs) (> 106 ESALs)
Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.

Compaction
(number of
blows on 35 50 75
each end of
the sample)

Stability 2224 N 3336 N 6672 N


(minimum)

Flow (0.25
8 20 8 18 8 16
mm )

Percent Air
3 5 3 5 3 5
Voids
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
The Marshall test results reflect trends which
are common to most laboratory tests for
optimum bitumen content as well as actual road
surfacing behaviour as follows:
• The unit weight of the mix increases with
increasing bitumen content until a maximum
value is reached, after which the unit weight
decreases.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
• The stability of the mix increases with
increasing bitumen content until a maximum
value is reached, after which the stability
decreases.
Generally the optimum bitumen content for
stability is close to the optimum bitumen
content for unit weight.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
• The flow value increases as the bitumen
content increases.
The rate of deformation is slow at low
bitumen contents but increases rapidly at high
bitumen contents.
This result is indicative of actual roadway
performance as surfacings with high flows
deform easily under traffic loads.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
• The percentage of voids in the total mix
decreases with increasing bitumen content
until a value is reached at which it begins to
level off.
The VTM percentage is critical with respect to
durability as too high a value makes the
bitumen and bitumen-aggregate bond more
susceptible to attack by air and water.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
Too low an air voids content makes the
surfacing more likely to bleed under traffic.
• The percentage of voids filled with bitumen
increases with increasing bitumen content
until a maximum is reached after which it
levels off.
Structural Design (Cont’d)
Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
Bituminous Surfacing (Cont’d)
Marshall Mix Design (Cont’d)
The rate of increase is fastest at low bitumen
contents after which the rate decreases until it
levels off at a high bitumen content.
When the mix is deficient in bitumen, the
surfacing becomes brittle, resulting in
cracking and ravelling under traffic. Too high a
bitumen content results in bleeding.

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