STRESS & STRAIN

Deformation

Dilation: a change in volume

Distortion: a change in form
Translation: a change in place
Rotation: a change in orientation
 Basic Fundamental Structural Geology

STRESS (s) & STRAIN (e)

“As Geologist I don’t believe in stress (John Ramsay)”

 Term for Stress & Strain

*) Important distinction between two quantities

Scalars vs. Vectors

force and stress

(on a surface)
temperature
temperature
volume gradient acceleration

SCALARS Earth’s VECTORS

gravity Earth’s
field Mantle
speed convection magnetic
time flow field

velocity ocean
length currents
VECTOR & COORDINATE SYSTEM
 BASIC CONCEPTS
FORCES & VECTORS
• Force is any action which alters, or tends to alter
• Newton II law of motion : F=Ma
• Unit force : kgm/s2 = newton (N) or dyne = gram cm/s2; N = 105 dynes

(a). Force: vector quantity with magnitude and direction

(b). Resolving by the parallelogram of forces

Two Types of Force

• Body Forces (i.e. gravitational force)
• Contact Forces (i.e. loading)

Modified Price and Cosgrove (1990)

GEOLOGY CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM
 STRESS
Stress defined as force per unit area:

σ = F/A
A = area, Stress units = Psi, Newton (N),
Pascal (Pa) or bar (105 Pa)

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

(Davis and Reynolds, 1996)
 STRESS
• Stress at a point in 2D

Stress (s)
• Types of stress

Normal stress (sN)

(+) Compressive (-) Tensile

Shear stress (sS)

(+) (-)
STRESS ON A PLANE AND AT A POINT

Stress Tensor Notation

s11 s12 s13

s = s21 s22 s23
s31 s32 s33
Geologic Sign
Convention of
Stress Tensor

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

 FUNDAMENTAL STRESS EQUATIONS

Principal Stress:
s1 > s2 > s3
• All stress axes are mutually
perpendicular
• Shear stress are zero in the
direction of principal stress

Stress Tensor Notation

s11 s12 s13

s = s21 s22 s23
s31 s32 s33

s12 = s21, s13 = s31, s23 = s32

Stress Ellipsoid
Stress Ellipsoid
a) Triaxial stress
b) Principal planes of
the ellipsoid

(Modified from Means, 1976)

ELIPSOID TEGASAN σ1 σ1

σ1 > σ2 = σ3 σ3 σ3
σ2 σ2

σ3
σ1 = σ2 > σ3 σ1 σ1
σ2 σ2

σ1 σ1

σ1 > σ2 > σ3 σ3 σ3
σ2 σ2
 z s
The State of s3
x
Two-Dimensional
Stress at Point

A. Stress elipse

s
s3
X3
X1

Principal Stress:
s1 > s3
B. Principal stress components Principal coordinate
axes and planes
s(top)
zz
(top)
z x, z = Surface Stress
Z
s(top) (rt)
x
zx

s(lft)
s(lft)
xx
xz dz
X
dx
s(rt) s(rt)
xx
xz

 (lft) s(bot)
zx
x

(bot)
z
s (bot)
zz Arbitrary coordinate
axes and planes
C. General stress components
(Twiss and Moores, 1992)
 The State of
3-Dimensional
Stress at Point
A. Stress elipsoid

x1
z
x3
Principal Stress:
s1 > s2 > s3
s s3
Principal
coordinate planes
z

s2

y
x2
y
x
B. Principal stress components x
z
Arbitrary
coordinate planes
szz z

szx
szy
syx
y
sxy syy
sxz syz
sxx

y
x
x
(Twiss and Moores, 1992)
C. General stress components
 SPECIAL
STATE OF STRESS
 Mohr Diagram 2-D

A. Physical Diagram A. Mohr Diagram

x
ss
n


s
s(p)
n , ss 
(p)
ss(p)

s s3 sin r
sn(p)
 2
2 2 s(p) s
s3 x3 s3 sn sn
ss 
(p) n 

Plane P
s s3  s s3 
2 2

s s3  
(Twiss and Moores, 1992) cos 2
2
 x
ss
n


s
s(p)
n , ss 
(p)
ss(p)

s s3 sin r
sn(p)
 2
2 2 s(p) s
s3 x3 s3 sn sn
ss 
(p) n 

Plane P
s s3  s s3 
2 2

s s3  
cos 2
2

s1 + s3 - s1 – s3
sN = cos 2
2 2
Stress Equation:
s1 – s3
ss = Sin 2
2
 Mohr Diagram 2-D

Planes of maximum shear stress

A. Physical Diagram B. Mohr Diagram

ss
x x
 = +45º Planes of maximum ss max
' = +45º
+
shear stress -
Counter clockwise
n n
s s

ss s3 x3 s3 x3 s3 2º s sn
ss
2' º

Counterclockwise Clockwise ss max

shear stress shear stress Clockwise

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

 (Davis and Reynolds, 1996)

• Mohr diagram is a graphical representative of state of stress

• Mean stress is hydrostatic component which tends to produce dilation
• Deviatoric stress is non hydrostatic which tends to produce distortion
• Differential stress, if greater is potential for distortion
 Image of Stress
ss ss ss

s s2 s3 sn s2 s3 s sn s3 s s2 sn

p

p 0 0 a 0 0 0 0 0
0 p 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 p 0 0 0 0 0 -a
A. Hydrostatic stress B. Uniaxial compression C. Uniaxial tension

ss ss ss

s2 s sn s3 s sn s3 s3 s3 sn
s3 s2
a 0 0 a 0 0 a 0 0
0 b 0 0 a 0 0 b 0
0 0 b 0 0 b 0 0 c
D. Axial or confined E. Axial extension or F. Triaxial stress
compression extensional stress
 Image of Stress
ss ss
sn
Deviatoric Applied

s3 s2 s sn s3  s3 s3 s sn
sn

a 0 0
0 0 0 s 0
 s sn 0
=
0 0 -a 0 s
 0 s3 sn
G. Pure shear stress H. Deviatoric stress
(two-dimensional)

ss ss

Effective Applied

s3 s s3 s s3 s sn s3
E s2
E Es s2 sn
s3 s

D s D s D s pf s 0 s p f
0 0 0
E

D ss s3 0 Es 2 0 = 0 s2 p f 0
I. Differential stress J. Effective stress 0 0 Es 3 0 0 s3 p f
(Three examples)
 STRESS
• Body force works from distance and depends on the amount of materials
affected (i.e. gravitational force).
• Surface force are classes as compressive or tensile according to the
distortion they produce.
• Stress is defined as force per unit area.
• Stress at the point can be divided as normal and shear component
depending they direction relative to the plane.
• Structural geology assumed that force at point are isotropic and
homogenous
• Stress vector around a point in 3-D as stress ellipsoid which have three
orthogonal principal directions of stress and three principal planes.
• Principal stress s1>s2>s3
• The inequant shape of the ellipsoid has to do with forces in rock and has
nothing directly to do with distortions.
• Mohr diagram is a graphical representative of state of stress of rock
 STRAIN

UNDEFORMED DEFORMED

Strain is defined as the change (in size and shape) of a body

resulting from the action of an applied stress field
 TYPES OF STRAIN

H H

A. Homogeneous strain

B. Inhomogeneous strain
 Fundamental Strain Equations
Undeformed State Deformed State
R = en

l o = 5 cm Strain r = Sn
R=1
L
 
L' = 3 cm

l f = 8 cm

L
L' = 4.8 cm A. Extension and stretch

Undeformed State Deformed State


T
Extension (e) = (lf – lo)/lo R
t es2tan

Strain r
 
Lengthening e>0 and shortening e<0

Stretch (S) = lf/lo = 1 + e

B. Shear strain


 = tan 

Shear Strain ()

SHEAR STRAIN
 Strain Ellipsoid

S1
S1 = Maximum Finite Stretch
S3 = Minimum Finite Stretch

S2
S3
S3

S1
S3

S2

S1
(Davis and Reynolds, 1996)
ELIPSOID TERAKAN τ1 τ1

τ1 > τ2 = τ3 τ3 τ3
τ2 τ2

τ1 τ1

τ1 = τ2 > τ3 τ3 τ3
τ2 τ2

τ1 τ1

τ1 > τ2 > τ3 τ3 τ3
τ2 τ2
 Progressive Deformation

A B
Simple Shear Pure Shear
(Noncoaxial Strain) (Coaxial Strain)

L M O
N

25% Flattering
S3 M S3
+ 22º S1

S1

30% Flattering
+ 31º S1 S3
S3

S1

40% Flattering
S1 S3
+ 45º S3

S1

(Davis and Reynolds, 1996)

Strain Measurement

• Geological Map
• Geologic Cross-section
• Seismic Section
• Outcrop
• Thin Section

Knowing the initial objects

• Shape
• Size
• Orientation
Strain Measurement from Outcrop
 

 = gap
STRESS vs. STRAIN
Relationship Between Stress and Strain

• Evaluate Using Experiment of Rock

Deformation
• Rheology of The Rocks
• Using Triaxial Deformation Apparatus
• Measuring Shortening
• Measuring Strain Rate
• Strength and Ductility
 Deformation and Material

A. Elastic strain
B. Viscous strain
C. Viscoelastic strain
D. Elastoviscous
E. Plastic strain

Hooke’s Law: e = s/E, E = Modulus Young or elasticity (Modified from Park, 1989)
Newtonian : s = he, hviscosity, e = strain-rate
Stress Ellipsoid
Strain Ellipsoid
Relationship Between Stress and Strain

• Evaluate Using Experiment of Rock

Deformation
• Rheology of The Rocks
• Using Triaxial Deformation Apparatus
• Measuring Shortening
• Measuring Strain Rate
• Strength and Ductility
STRESS – STRAIN RELATIONS
 400
Yield Strength
After Strain
Stress – Strain Diagram
Hardening Ultimate
D Strength
C B E
300 A
Differential Stress (in MPa)

Yield
Strength A. Onset plastic deformation
Rep ture
B. Removal axial load
Strength
C. Permanently strained
D. Plastic deformation
200 E. Rupture

100

1 2 3 4 5 6
Strain (in %)
 Effects of Temperature and Differential Stress

2000

140
130
25ºC

Differential Stress (in MPa)

30 0 1500
80
Differential Stress, MPa

70
60
300ºC
20 0
40 1000

20
500ºC
10 0
500
Crown Point Limestone
700ºC

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 800ºC
Strain, percent 0
5 10 15 Strain (in %)
BRITTLE & DUCTILE
DEFORMATION MECHANISMS

CATACLASTIC AND PLASTIC

DEFORMATION MECHANISMS